Cognition chronic effects

Nicotine, the principal psychoactive alkaloid in tobacco, has cognitive-enhancing effects. It directly activates nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in brain areas critical for cognition, creating both acute and chronic effects. 

Block, R.I., Farinpour, R., and Braverman, K., Acute effects of marijuana on cognition relationships to chronic effects and smoking techniques, Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav., 43, 907, 1992. 

Shorvan, S. D. Handbook of Epilepsy Treatment. Oxford Blackwell Science, 2000. Vermeulen, J. and Aldenkamp, A. P. Cognitive side effects of chronic antiepileptic drug treatment a review of 25 years research. Epilepsy Res. 22 (1995) 65-80. 

Hindmarch I, Johnson S, Meadows R, Kirkpatrick T, Shamsi Z. The acute and sub-chronic effects of levocetirizine, cetirizine, loratadine, promethazine and placebo on cognitive function, psychomotor performance, and weal and flare. Curr Med Res Opin 2001 17(4) 241-55. 

Quite frequently, and typically 1-4 days after resolution of symptoms of acute exposure, the intermediate syndrome may develop, characterised by a proximal flaccid limb paralysis which may reflect muscle necrosis. Even later, after a gap of 2-4 weeks, some exposed persons exhibit the delayed polyneuropathy, with sensory and motor impairment usually of the lower limbs. Claims of chronic effects (subtle cognitive defects, peripheral neuropathy) following recurrent, low-dose exposure, as with organophosphate used as sheep dip, continues to be the subject of investigation but, as yet, no conclusive proof. 

A chronic effect of alcohol use is impaired memory and other cognitive functions. Some of these effects are virtually reversible with abstinence from alcohol. However, when there is structural damage to the brain, as in Korsakoff s syndrome, the effects are permanent. 

Stough C, Lloyd J, Clarke J, Downey LA, Hutchison CW, Rodgers T, Nathan PJ (2001) The chronic effects of an extract of Bacopa monniera (Brahmi) on cognitive function in healthy human subjects. Psychopharmacology (BctI) 156 481-484... 

Benzodiazepines. Several BZs have anticonvulsant activity and ate used for the treatment of epilepsy producing their anticonvulsant actions via interactions with the GABA /BZ receptor complex to enhance inhibitory GABAergic transmission (1). The anticonvulsant actions of the BZs tend to tolerate upon chronic usage in six months, and BZs also lead to withdrawal symptomatology. Other side effects include sedation, ataxia, and cognitive impairment. 

Chronic exposure to Pb has been shown to cause anaemia, neurotoxic effects, such as reduced cognitive performance and reduced peripheral nerve conduction velocity, and nephrotoxicity. Children are more sensitive to exposure to Pb than adults, especially during the first 2 years of life [41], For children, exposure to lead can cause growth retardation, affect the neuropsychological development and cause encephalopathy [39]. Adverse reproductive effects due to lead exposure have been observed for both men and women. Exposure of pregnant women to low concentrations of lead is associated with miscarriages and low birth weights [40],... 

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