Coal and oil shale

With the beginning of the industrial revolution around 1800, oil became increasingly important for lubrication and better illumination. Expensive vegetable oils were replaced by sperm whale oil [8002-24-2], which soon became scarce and its price skyrocketed. In 1850 lubrication oil was extracted from coal and oil shale (qv) in England, and ultimately about 130 plants in Great Britain and 64 plants in Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Kentucky employed this process. 

In modern terms, asphaltene is conceptually defined as the normal-pentane-insoluble and benzene-soluble fraction whether it is derived from coal or from petroleum. The generalized concept has been extended to fractions derived from other carbonaceous sources, such as coal and oil shale (8,9). With this extension there has been much effort to define asphaltenes in terms of chemical structure and elemental analysis as well as by the carbonaceous source. It was demonstrated that the elemental compositions of asphaltene fractions precipitated by different solvents from various sources of petroleum vary considerably (see Table I). Figure 1 presents hypothetical structures for asphaltenes derived from oils produced in different regions of the world. Other investigators (10,11) based on a number of analytical methods, such as NMR, GPC, etc., have suggested the hypothetical structure shown in Figure 2. 

Utilization of coal and oil shale to produce liquid and gaseous synfuels results in the generation of many hazardous sub-tances. Workers in these synfuel plants are likely to be exposed to potentially carcinogenic materials present in coal tars and oils. Among the various pathways of exposure, skin contamination by direct contact transfer or by adsorption of vapors and particulates into the skin presents a serious occupational health hazard. The skin irritant and potential carcinogenic properties of raw syncrudes and their distillate fractions have been reported (1. 2, 3). 

The importance of sulfur as an industrial chemical is discussed and forecasts of projected sulfur demand in the U.S. are given. Three processes for conversion of coal and oil shale to synthetic fuels are examined in some detail to show how the sulfur in the original feedstock material is recovered as elemental by-product sulfur. Three synthetic fuel scenarios are examined and their potential impact on sulfur availability with current and projected markets to the year 2000 are examined. 

We will examine three synthetic fuel scenarios and compare their implications regarding sulfur availability with the current and projected market for sulfur to the year 2000. The analysis will consider three production levels of synthetic fuels from coal and oil shale. A low sulfur Western coal will be utilized as a feedstock for indirect liquefaction producing both synthetic natural gas and refined liquid fuels. A high sulfur Eastern coal will be converted to naphtha and syncrude via the H-Coal direct liquefaction process. Standard retorting of a Colorado shale, followed by refining of the crude shale oil, will round out the analysis. Insights will be developed from the displacement of imported oil by synthetic liquid fuels from coal and shale. 

STORCH—LIQUID FUELS FROM COAL AND OIL SHALE... 

Porphyrins with metals other than iron (and cobalt) are not of particular direct relevance to the present section, although it should be noted that porphyrins have been extracted from coal and oil shales with metals such as gallium and the early transition metals coordinated. The biological significance of these observations is questionable. Nevertheless, detailed studies on a range of metalloporphyrins have contributed substantially to our appreciation of the bonding in such molecules, and the influence of cis and trans ligands on their structure and reactivity.599 609... 

Arsenic in coal and oil shale utilization and their by-products... 

Fossil fuel resources a gaseous, liquid, or solid fuel material formed in the ground by chemical and physical changes (diagenesis, q.v.) in plant and animal residues over geological time natural gas, petroleum, coal, and oil shale. 

Hydrocarbon-producing resource a resource such as coal and oil shale (kero-gen) which produce derived hydrocarbons by the application of conversion processes the hydrocarbons so-produced are not naturally-occurring materials. 

C. E. and Frumkin, H. A., "Refining and Upgrading of Synfuels from Coal and Oil Shales by Advanced Catalytic Processes, First Interim Report, Processing of Paraho Shale Oil," DOE Report No. FE-2315-25, April 1978. 

In the USA, research and development is heavily focused on the security of the energy supply, and the large native reserves of coal and oil shale could be used for the manufacture of sulphur-free, synthetic fuels, which could be used in existing internal combustion engine technologies. This would seem a likely way forward for vehicle propulsion, although the ultimate direction will be dictated by environmental and political considerations. 

V. J. Bartuska, G. E. Maciel, and F. P. Miknis, "C-13 NMR Studies of Coals and Oil Shales," American Chemical Society, Division of Fuel Chemistry, Preprints, 1978, 23. 

Once the synthetic crude oils from coal and oil shale have been upgraded and the heavy ends converted to lighter distillates, further refining by existing processes need not be covered in detail except to note the essential character of the products. The paraffinic syncrude from oil shale yields middle distillates which are excellent jet and diesel fuel stocks. The principal requirements are removal of nitrogen to the extent necessary for good thermal stability of the fuels and adjustment of cut points to meet required pour or freeze points, limited by the presence of waxy straight-chain paraffins. The heavy naphtha from shale oil can be further hydrotreated and catalytically reformed to acceptable octane number, but with considerable loss of volume because of the only moderate content of cyclic hydrocarbons, typically 45-50%. On the other... 

Touring 1970 and 1971, the energy industries addressed themselves to the feasibility of rapidly approaching synthetic fuels industry. Decisions were made to expend a considerable monetary and manpower eflFort to keep the petroleum industry abreast and informed of this new developing technology. These initial efforts resulted in decisions by Ashland Oil and a number of other corporations to participate in coal-and oil shale-conversion process development. 

Neutron Activation. In environmental and industrial process studies, neutron activation analysis (NAA) currently is being used widely because of its inherently high sensitivity and accuracy. In complex substances such as are found in solvent-refined coal and oil shale retorting processes, NAA is the method of choice for many trace element analyses because of its relative freedom from matrix effects. 

Table III. Benzopyrenes Determined in Solvent-Refined Coal and Oil Shale Materials...

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