Chlorination health effects

J. C. Morris and R. A. Isaac, Water Chlorination Environmental Impact and Health Effects, Vol. 4, Ann Arbor Science, Ann Arbor, Mich., 1983, pp. 49-62. 

R. M. Harrington, D. Gates, and R. R. Romano, "A Review of the Uses, Chemistry and Health Effects of Chlorine Dioxide and the Chlorite Ion, Chlorine Dioxide Panel of the Chemical Manufacturers Association, Washington, D.C., Api. 1989. 

Human Health Effects. Any assessment of adverse human health effects from PCBs should consider the route(s) of and duration of exposure the composition of the commercial PCB products, ie, degree of chlorination and the levels of potentially toxic PCDF contaminants. As a result of these variables, it would not be surprising to observe significant differences in the effects of PCBs on different groups of occupationally-exposed workers. 

Keith LH, Hall RC, Hanisch RC, et al. 1983. New methods for gas chromatographic analysis of water pollutants. In Jolley RE, Brungs WA, Cotruvo JA, et al., eds. Water chlorination Environmental impact and health effects. Vol. 4(Bookl Chemistry and water treatment), Ann Arbor Science. Ann Arbor, MI The Butterworth Group, 563-582. 

One of the most widely established processes using SCCO2 is the decaffeination of coffee. Prior to widespread use of this process in the 1980s the preferred extraction solvent was dichloromethane. The potential adverse health effects of chlorinated materials were realized at this time and, although there was no direct evidence of any adverse health effects being caused by any chlorinated residues in decaffeinated coffee there was always the risk, highlighted in some press scare stories. Hence the current processes offer health, environmental and economic advantages. 

Carpenter JH, Smith CA in Water Chlorination - Environmental Impact and Health Effects Jolley RL, Gorchev H, and Hamilton DH (eds) Volume 2 (1978) Ann Arbor Science, Ann Arbor, MI, p. 195-208... 

Knoietzko H. 1984. Chlorinated ethanes sources, distribution, environmental impact, and health effects. 401-448. 

Ball HA, Reinhard M (1984) In Jolley RL, Bull RJ, Davis WP, Katz S, Roberts MH Jr, Jacobs VA (eds) Water chlorination chemistry, environmental impact and health effects. Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI, vol 5, pp 1505... 

Although we can measure the amount of chloroform in the air that you breathe out, and in blood, urine, and body tissues, we have no reliable test to determine how much chloroform you have been exposed to or whether you will experience any harmful health effects. The measurement of chloroform in body fluids and tissues may help to determine if you have come into contact with large amounts of chloroform. However, these tests are useful only a short time after you are exposed to chloroform because it leaves the body quickly. Because it is a breakdown product of other chemicals (chlorinated hydrocarbons), chloroform in your body might also indicate that you have come into contact with those other chemicals. Therefore, small amounts of chloroform in the body may indicate exposure to these other chemicals and may not indicate low chloroform levels in the environment. From blood tests to determine the amount of liver enzymes, we can tell whether the liver has been damaged, but we cannot tell whether the liver damage was caused by chloroform. 

Chlorination, Environmental Impact and Health Effects. Ann Arbor, MI Arm Arbor Science Publications, 1 395-409. 

Pereira MA, Daniel FB, Lin EEC. 1984. Relationship between metabolism of haloacetonitriles and chloroform and their carcinogenic activity. In Jolley RL, Bull RJ, Davis WP, etal, eds. Water Chlorination Chemistry, Environmental Impact and Health Effects. Volume 5. Lewis Publishers, Inc., 229-236. 

Reitz RH, Quast JF, Scott WT, et al. 1980. Pharmacokinetics and macromolecular effects of chloroform in rats and mice. Implications for carcinogenic risk estimation. Water chlorination environmental impact and health effects 3 983-993. 

Konietzko, H. Chlorinated ethanes sources, distribution, environmental impact, and health effects, in Hazard Assessment of Chemicals, Volume 3, Saxena, J., Ed. (New York Academic Press, 1984), pp. 401-448. 

Glaze WH, Henderson JE, Smith G (1975) Analysis of new chlorinated organic compounds formed by chlorination of municipal wastewater. In Jolley RJ (ed) Water chlorination environmental impact and health effects. Ann Arbor Science, Ann Arbor, MI, pp 139-159... 

Pressman JG, Richardson SD, Speth TF, Miltner RJ, Narotsky MG, Hunter ES IB, Rice GE, Teuschler LK, McDonald A, Parvez S, Krasner SW, Weinberg HS, McKague AB, Parrett CJ, Bodin N, Chinn R, Lee CFT, Simmons JE (2010) Concentration, chlorination, and chemical analysis of drinking water for disinfection byproduct mixtures health effects research U.S. EPA s four lab study. Environ Sci Technol 44 7184—7192... 

Kopperman HL, Keuhl DW, Glass GE. 1978. Chlorinated compounds found in waste treatment effluents and their capacity to bioaccumulate. In Jolley RL, ed. Water chlorination Environmental impact and health effects. Volume 1. Aim Arbor, MI Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc., 311-328. 

Exon JH, Koller ED Toxicity of 2-chlorophe-nol, 2,4-dichlorophenol and 2,4,6-trichlorophenol. In Jolley RL et al. (eds) Water Chlorination, Vol. 5, Chemistry, environmental impact and health effects. Chelsea, MI, Lewis Publishers, 1985... 

Existing Information on Health Effects of Chlorine Dioxide and Chlorite 6-1 Frequency of NPL Sites with Chlorine Dioxide and Chlorite Contamination... 

Neurodevelopmental effects appear to be of greatest toxicological concern, particularly in light of the fact that chlorine dioxide and chlorite may be used as disinfectants for drinking water. Therefore, the following brief discussion includes only developmental effects. The reader is referred to Section 3.2, Discussion of Health Effects by Route of Exposure, for additional information regarding the potential for other chlorine dioxide- or chlorite-induced health effects. 

Estimates of exposure levels posing minimal risk to humans (MRLs) have been made for chlorine dioxide and chlorite. An MRL is defined as an estimate of daily human exposure to a substance that is likely to be without an appreciable risk of adverse effects (noncarcinogenic) over a specified duration of exposure. MRLs are derived when reliable and sufficient data exist to identify the target organ(s) of effect or the most sensitive health effect(s) for a specific duration within a given route of exposure. MRLs are based on noncancerous health effects only and do not consider carcinogenic effects. MRLs can be derived for acute, intermediate, and chronic duration exposures for inhalation and oral routes. Appropriate methodology does not exist to develop MRLs for dermal exposure. 

Available human and animal data indicate that airborne chlorine dioxide (CIO2) primarily acts as a respiratory tract and ocular irritant. Chlorite (CIO2 ) does not persist in the atmosphere either in ionic form or as chlorite salt. Available information concerning health effects associated with inhalation exposure is limited to chlorine dioxide. 

No reports were located in which the following health effects in humans or animals could be associated with inhalation exposure to chlorine dioxide ... 

The database for health effects related to dermal exposure to chlorine dioxide or chlorite is extremely limited. No reports were located regarding adverse effects in humans following dermal exposure to chlorine dioxide or chlorite. Available information in animals is restricted to a report that a solution containing chlorine dioxide concentrations of approximately 9.7-11.4 mg/L was nonirritating to the skin of mice in a 48-hour test. Dermal exposure to high concentrations would be expected to result in irritation, due to the oxidizing properties of chlorine dioxide and chlorite. Sodium chlorite was not carcinogenic in mice treated dermally for 51 weeks. Nor did sodium chlorite appear to be a cancer promoter in mice... 

Mechanisms involved in chlorine dioxide- and chlorite-induced oxidative stress, such as methemoglobinemia in humans and animals, would be expected to be similar across species. However, the database of pharmacokinetic and health effects information for chlorine dioxide or chlorite does not include studies in which interspecies comparisons were made. 

Section 104(I)(5) of CERCLA, as amended, directs the Administrator of ATSDR (in consultation with the Administrator of EPA and agencies and programs of the Public Health Service) to assess whether adequate information on the health effects of chlorine dioxide and chlorite is available. Where adequate information is not available, ATSDR, in conjunction with the National Toxicology Program (NTP), is required to assure the initiation of a program of research designed to determine the health effects (and techniques for developing methods to determine such health effects) of chlorine dioxide and chlorite. 

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