Cheese compositional analysis

Contents I. Introduction 168 II. Sampling Techniques 168 III. Compositional Analysis 169 A. Moisture and total solids 169 B. Fat 171 C. Protein 171 D. Ash 172 E. Salt and chloride content 172 F. Acidity and pH 172 G. Calcium and phosphorus 173 IV. Monitoring Cheese Ripening 173 A. Assessment of lactose, lactate, and citrate metabolism 174 B. Assessment of lipolysis 178 C. Assessment of proteolysis 180 D. Assessment of smaller breakdown products 194 V. Novel and Rapid Instrumental Methods 196 VI. Concluding Remarks 200 References 201... 

Analysis of cheese composition, including moisture, protein, fat, ash, and salt, is usually conducted according to the methods published by ISO, IDF, or AO AC. Some of the standard methods available for cheese analysis are summarized in Table 5.1 and briefly discussed below. Additional information may be found elsewhere (Nielsen, 2003 Nollet, 2004). 

TABLE 5.1 Standard methods for compositional analysis of cheese... 

Rodriguez-Otero et al. (46) tried to measure cheese composition by NIR in cheese. They tried to analyze cheese without any prior sample manipulation (not even grating) on the basis of increased knowledge in calibration techniques based on multivariate analysis. Repeatability of NIR moisture determination was approximately double in comparison with the reference method. Repeatability of determination of protein by reference (Kjeldahl) and NIR methods was higher for the NIR spectroscopy, probably because of the large sample size rather than to a lack of method precision. The repeatability of fat determination by reference (gravimetric extraction) and NIR methods was 0.31% for reference and 0.40% for NIRS. 

Most creamery butter is produced by churning sweet cream so that the fat globules coalesce into a soft mass. The federal standard for butter (USDA 1981B) requires not less than 80% milk fat. FAO/WHO standards specify 80% milk fat, as well as no more than 16% water and a maximum of 2.0% nonfat milk solids (FAO 1973). The required fat level is universal. A typical analysis of butter is given in Table 2.3. Whey butter has a similar composition but is derived from the milk fat recovered from cheese whey. 

The ability of MIR to monitor fundamental vibrations of several functional groups provides a new tool for researchers to look at minor compounds in cheese. Some of its early applications were focused on the analysis of macromolecules in cheese such as fat, moisture, and protein (Chen et ah, 1998 McQueen et ah, 1995). More recently, the chemical parameters of cheese (Martfn-del-Campo et ah, 2007), composition (Rodriguez-Saona et ah, 2006), protein structure and interactions during ripening (Mazerolles et ah, 2001), and ripening of Swiss cheese (Martin-del-Campo et ah, 2009) were analyzed with improved techniques. Almost all attempts have been directed toward the determination of macromolecules in cheese. This is mainly because of difficulties in sampling procedures and the heterogeneous nature of cheese (McQueen et ah, 1995) that make analysis of minor compounds difficult. 

Fenelon, M.A., Guinee, T.P., Delahunty, C., Murray, J., Crowe, F. 2000b. Composition and sensory attributes of retail Cheddar cheeses with different fat contents. J. Food Comp. Analysis 13, 13-26. 

Source Adapted from Hedrick, H.B. et al., Principles in Meat Science, Kendall-Hunt Publishing Co., Dubuque, 1994 Kirk, R.S. and Sawyer, R., Pearson s Composition and Analysis of Foods, Longman Science, London, 1991 Renner, E., Cheese Chemistry, Physics and Microbiology, Vol. 1, Fox, P.F., Ed., Chapman Hall, London, 1993, 557 Sikorski, Z.E., Seafood Raw Materials, WNT, Warsaw, 1992 Tamime, A.Y. and Robinson, R.K., Yoghurt Science and Technology, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1999. 

Prandini, A., Sigolo, S., Piva, G. (2011). A comparative study of fatty acid composition and CLA concentration in commercial cheeses. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 24, 55-61. 

Spizzirri, U. G., Restuccia, D., Curcio, M., Parisi, O. L, lemma, F., Picci, N. (2013). Determination of biogenic amines in different cheese samples by LC with evaporative light scattering detector. Journal of Eood Composition and Analysis, 29, 43-51. http //dx.doi.Org/10.1016/j.jfca.2012.09.005. 

Two-dimensional GC was employed for the analysis of chiral PCBs in foods such as milk, cheese, and salmon. A new (3-CD derivative (permethylated-(3-CD/hydroxy-termination silicone oil) was employed for the efficient extraction of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in soil. CDs have also been used for the analysis of toxaphene congeners. It was established that permethylated and rert-butyldimethylsilylated-(3-CDs separate different congeners and can be applied for the smdy of the degradation of toxaphens. Another smdy applied two-dimensional GC for the successful separation of toxaphene enantiomers. It was found that the separation efficacy of (3-CD containing columns showed marked differences, depending on the composition of the stationary phase. Capillary columns coated with heptakis-(2,3,6-D-tert-butyldimethylsilyl)-(3-CD or octakis-(quest 2,3,6-tri-D-ethyl)-7-CD were employed for the enantiomer-selective decomposition of toxaphene congeners in rats after intravenous administration. The... 

Abd El-Salam, M. H., El-Shibiny, S. (2014). Conjugated Unoleic acid and vaccenic acid contents in cheeses an overview from the hterature. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis,... 

Lee et al. (32) investigated the potential for utilizing NIRS to rapidly determine composition of curds during cheese making. The authors reported that an acceptable linear relationship was found between chemical and NIRS analysis and that the standard deviation for NIRS measurements was lower than that for the chemical values for all the constituents. 

Analysis of the (spray)-dried products on fat, moisture, and protein to get the right composition mixture for special products and analysis of the raw materials for the production of cream, cheese, casein, and whey. 

The simple, linear model was superseded in the 1980s by the epidemiological model, the best known example of which is the Swiss cheese model. The Swiss cheese model represents events in terms of composite linear causality, where adverse outcomes are due to combinations of active failures (or unsafe acts) and latent conditions (hazards). Event analysis thus looks for how degraded barriers or defences can combine with active (human) failures. Similarly, risk analysis focuses on finding the conditions under which combinations of single failures and latent conditions may result in an adverse outcome, where the latent conditions are conceived of as degraded barriers or weakened defences (Figure 4.2). 

---