Catalysts circulating

The MTO process employs a turbulent fluid-bed reactor system and typical conversions exceed 99.9%. The coked catalyst is continuously withdrawn from the reactor and burned in a regenerator. Coke yield and catalyst circulation are an order of magnitude lower than in fluid catalytic cracking (FCC). The MTO process was first scaled up in a 0.64 m /d (4 bbl/d) pilot plant and a successfiil 15.9 m /d (100 bbl/d) demonstration plant was operated in Germany with U.S. and German government support. 

Thus the ECCU always operates in complete heat balance at any desired hydrocarbon feed rate and reactor temperature this heat balance is achieved in units such as the one shown in Eigure 1 by varying the catalyst circulation rate. Catalyst flow is controlled by a sHde valve located in the catalyst transfer line from the regenerator to the reactor and in the catalyst return line from the reactor to the regenerator. In some older style units of the Exxon Model IV-type, where catalyst flow is controlled by pressure balance between the reactor and regenerator, the heat-balance control is more often achieved by changing the temperature of the hydrocarbon feed entering the riser. 

Coke on the catalyst is often referred to as delta coke (AC), the coke content of the spent catalyst minus the coke content of the regenerated catalyst. Delta coke directly influences the regenerator temperature and controls the catalyst circulation rate in the FCCU, thereby controlling the ratio of catalyst hydrocarbon feed (cat-to-od ratio, or C/O). The coke yield as a fraction of feed Cpis related to delta coke through the C/O ratio as ... 

Decreasing the specific heat of combustion increases the amount of the coke that must be burned the coke component that increases is essentially the cat-to-od coke, which is increased by increasing the catalyst circulation rate. Cat-to-oil coke can be expressed as (20) ... 

Thus decreasing the specific heat of combustion results in an increase in catalyst circulation rate. Because of this relationship to coke yield (eq. 9), the increase in the catalyst circulation rate results in a decrease in regenerator temperature. 

Since the first fluid-bed catalytic cracking unit was commissioned in 1942, more than 300 additional units have been built. During this time, the process has evolved and has seen considerable improvement in mechanical constmction, reflabiUty, and process flow. A modern FCCU typically operates continuously for three to four years between turnarounds, during which time 10 kg of feedstock are processed and 7 x 10 ° kg of catalyst circulated. Early FCCU designs, (53) were complex compared with the compact configuration of more recent design (Fig. 1). 

The principal advance ia technology for SASOL I relative to the German Fischer-Tropsch plants was the development of a fluidized-bed reactor/regenerator system designed by M. W. Kellogg for the synthesis reaction. The reactor consists of an entrained-flow reactor ia series with a fluidized-bed regenerator (Fig. 14). Each fluidized-bed reactor processes 80,000 m /h of feed at a temperature of 320 to 330°C and 2.2 MPa (22 atm), and produces approximately 300 m (2000 barrels) per day of Hquid hydrocarbon product with a catalyst circulation rate of over 6000 t/h (49). 

SASOL has pursued the development of alternative reactors to overcome specific operational difficulties encountered with the fixed-bed and entrained-bed reactors. After several years of attempts to overcome the high catalyst circulation rates and consequent abrasion in the Synthol reactors, a bubbling fluidized-bed reactor 1 m (3.3 ft) in diameter was constructed in 1983. Following successflil testing, SASOL designed and construc ted a full-scale commercial reac tor 5 m (16.4 ft) in diameter. The reactor was successfully commissioned in 1989 and remains in operation. 

Controlled catalyst circulation is one of the most important prerequisites for trouble-free operation of the FCC unit. Uniform circulation is ensured by controlling the differential pressure between the reactor and regenerator. The differential pressure in the existing plant is controlled by a differential pressure governor adjusting the position of the double slide valve upstream of the orifice chamber. 

The Socony Vacuum design consisted of separate vessels for reaction and regeneration. Units constructed in the late 1940s employed a pneumatic lift design which allowed for high catalyst circulation rates. A typical design is shown in Figure 20, which allowed for a primary air stream to convey the catalyst. A... 

The lift pipe design was tapered to a larger diameter at the top. This minimized the effects of erosion and catalyst attrition, and also prevented the instantaneous total collapse of circulations when the saltation concentration, or velocity, of solids is experienced (i.e. the slump veloeity-that velocity helow which particles drop out of the flowing gas stream). In a typical operation, 2 % to 4 % eoke can he deposited on the catalyst in the reactor and burned in the regenerator. Catalyst circulation is generally not sufficient to remove all the heat of eombustion. This facilitated the need for steam or pressurized water coils to be located in the regeneration zone to remove exeess heat. 

Model II Regenerator at higher elevation and lower pressure than reactor. Slide valves control catalyst circulation. 

Model IV Regenerator and reactor at approximately equal elevation and pressure. Catalyst circulates through U-bends, controlled by pressure balance and variable dense-phase riser. 

The fluidization characteristics of an FCC catalyst largely depend on the unit s mechanical configuration. The percentage of less than 40 microns in the circulating inventory is a function of cyclone efficiency. In units with good catalyst circulation, it may be economical to minim the fraction of less than 40-micron particles. This is because after a few cycles, most of the 0-40 microns will escape the unit via the cyclones. 

It is apparent that the type and magnitude of these reactions have an impact on the heat balance of the unit. For example, a catalyst with less hydrogen transfer characteristics will cause the net heat of reaction to be more endothennic. Consequently this will require a higher catalyst circulation and, possibly, a higher coke yield to maintain the heat balance,... 

A heat balance can be performed around the reactor, around the stripper-regenerator, and as an overall heat balance around the reactor-regenerator. The stripper-regenerator heat balance can be used to calculate the catalyst circulation rate and the catalysi-to-oil ratio. 

Using the operating data from the case study. Example 5-5 shows heat balance calculations around the stripper-regenerator. The results are used to determine the catalyst circulation rate and the delta coke. Delta coke is the difference between coke on the spent catalyst and coke on the regenerated catalyst. 

Pressure balance deals with the hydraulics of catalyst circulation in the reactor/regenerator circuit. The pressure balance starts with the static pressures and differential pressures that are measured. The various pressure increases and decreases in the circuit are then calculated. The object is to ... 

A clear understanding of the pressure balance is extremely imptiriant in squeezing the most out of a unit. Incremental capacity can come from increased catalyst circulation or from altering the differential pressure between the reactor-regenerator to free up the wet gas compressor or air blower loads. One must know how to manipulate the pressure balance to identify the true constraints of the unit. 

The heat balance exercise provides a tool for in-depth analysis of the unit operation. Heat balance surveys determine catalyst circulation rate, delta coke, and heat of reaction. The procedures described in this chapter can be easily programmed into a spreadsheet program to calculate the balances on a routine basis. 

The pressure balance provides an insight into the hydraulics of catalyst circulation. Performing pressure balance surveys will help the unit engineer identify pinch points. It will also balance two common constraints the air blower and the wet gas compressor. 

Catalyst circulation coke is a hydrogen-rich coke from the reactor-stripper. Efficiency of catalyst stripping and catalyst pore size distribution affect the amount of hydrocarbons carried over into the regenerator. 

Catalyst flux is defined as catalyst circulation rate divided by the full cross-sectional area of the stripper. For efficient stripping, it is desirable to minimize the catalyst flux to reduce the carryover of hydrogen-rich hydrocarbons into the regenerator. 

Catalyst residence time in the stripper is determined by catalyst circulation rate and the amount of catalyst in the stripper. This amount usually corresponds to the quantity of the catalyst from the centerline of a normal bed level to the centerline of the lower steam distributor. A higher catalyst residence time, though it increases hydrothermal deactivation of the catalyst, will improve stripping efficiency. 

Catalyst skeletal density Catalyst flowing density Stripper operating pressure Stripper operating temperature Catalyst circulation rate... 

The standpipe provides the necessary head pressure required to achieve proper catalyst circulation. Standpipes are sized to operate in the fluidized region for a wide variation of catalyst flow. Maximum catalyst circulation rates are realized at higher head pressures. The higher head pressures can only be achieved when the catalyst is fluidized. Table 7-5 contains typical process and mechanical design criteria for standpipes. 

The formula to calculate catalyst circulation rate through a slide valve is ... 

To illustrate the use of the above equation, determine the catalyst circulation rate from the following information ... 

Catalyst Circulation Catalyst Loss Coking/Fouling Flow Reversal... 

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