Carrying out the Measurements

Many thanks to M. Miinker and T. Flor from the HAPEG in Hattingen, Germany for carrying out the measurements and supplying the data seen in figures 4. 

After every correction the relay again carries out the measurements on the capacitor units (periodically, say, in 24 hours in supervisory mode), to inonitor their health and to detect for any deterioration. When the capacitance of a unit falls below the acceptable level it can emit an alarm. 

It is essential to plan the time schedule of a measurement project-—the more detailed, the more important it is to carry out the measurements in a specified time. The time schedule is achieved by dividing the whole project into smaller tasks and assessing the time required to carry out these subtasks. A rough division of a mea.surement project could contain the following elements ... 

Errors related to velocity measurement instruments have different origins depending on the measurement principle. The most important of these have been covered in previous sections. One common source of error for all instruments is the disturbance of the flow field by the sensor/meter or the person carrying out the measuring. The influence of the sensor in an open space is usually... 

If you cannot select suitable equipment for your current environment, you may need to control the environment in order to carry out the measurements. In such areas the environmental factors important to maintaining stable measurement should be monitored and the monitoring equipment calibrated. Chart recorders enable you to monitor conditions without having to be in constant attendance. The environment should be controlled in areas where calibration is carried out in order to provide stable conditions in which accurate and precise measurement can be taken. However, some modern equipment is so stable that environmental controls are unnecessary except in special circumstances. 

If such a notice is received, an occupier may serve a counter-notice on the local authority requesting them to carry out the measurements themselves. The converse may also happen, in that the local authority may serve a notice which empowers them to enter premises to take measurements (after 21 days notice). If this notice is received an owner can (by notice) require the local authority to allow him to carry out the measurements himself. 

Pedersen et al. [9] who carried out the measurement of fea using tracer Kr, gave almost the same prediction as the present work. 

Rabinovich et al. have shown that it is possible to propose an extrather-modynamic definition of single-ion activity, a, as a function of the real potentials of those particles. "" By carrying out the measurements of voltaic cells containing electrodes reversible to the same ionic species in solutions of different concentrations in the same solvent. 

The determination of the specific surface area of a powder by air permeability methods essentially involves the measurement of the pressure drop across a bed of the powder under carefully controlled flow conditions. The data obtained are substituted in the Kozeny-Carman equation to estimate the specific surface area. Permeability methods have certain advantages, one of them being that the equipment used for carrying out the measurements is cheap and robust. Another advantage is that sample problems are minimized because a large sample of powder is required to be used for analysis. 

Today we might be able to carry out the measurement a little faster, but the results would not be better. The lines are very sharp, as you can see from the fact that we can clearly determine coupling constants as low as 3 Hz. 

It is impossible to give a general recipe to carry out the measure of the thermal conductivity of a material. The following general considerations must be kept in mind ... 

We have carried out the measurement of the thermal conductivity of six copper samples, whose characteristics are shown in Table 11.2. 

The appropriate levels will depend on what is being measured and the reason for carrying out the measurement. This is always an interesting discussion topic. 

Perhaps the most difficulty arises in the measurement of an organic measurand in an organic matrix because it is then not possible to prevent interference from the matrix by initial destruction of the matrix before carrying out the measurement. This is because the measurand would also be lost during this process. In such a situation, the measurand is first separated from the matrix, usually by solvent extraction. 

The reflection intensities can be measured as the sums of the intensities recorded at each point of the scanned profile. The computer of the system can carry out the measurement in both accumulation mode (to achieve the same required statistical accuracy for all reflections either strong or weak) or in constant time mode. Although in accumulation mode, precision of the order of 1% can be achieved for all reflections in the ED pattern (dynamical range of 10 ), measurement time is within the order of 10 min up to now. However, it is foreseen that in near future, measurement times of 1 min can be achieved for up to 50 reflections. 

The major problem with LIF measurements in the past has been what might be called the atmospheric uncertainty principle i.e., in the act of carrying out the measurement, the system is perturbed and artifact formation of OH can occur (e.g., see Smith and Crosley, 1990 and Hard et al., 1992b). This is primarily due to the photolysis of 03 to generate O( D), which in the presence of water vapor forms OH ... 

Carrying out the measurements as a function of X (i.e., wavelength) allows a new kind of spectroscopy (see following discussion). 

When very reactive substrates such as 121 and 141 (X = OMe, Y = Z = N02) are studied, very low reagent concentrations may be required and can be obtained by the use of buffer systems such as RC02 -RC02H and ArO -ArOH.33,36 Furthermore, in such cases the dilute solutions of the substrates in methanol and without any added MeO" are found slowly to gain a coloration due to the adduct.33,36 A detailed kinetic analysis has been carried out by Terrier et al.s6 for adducts 122 and 143 in methanol solution. By use of an appropriate set of buffers, it has been possible to carry out the measurements for equilibrium and rate constant determinations in a wide spectrum of pH values in MeOH from 5.5 to 13.7. 

For the system Hs NBr-ethanol-water at x = 0.305, the actual k and R.A.A.D. values observed were 1.07 0.03 and 3.5, respectively however, the shape of the smoothed line passing through the points almost duplicated that for the system with the same components at x = 0.316. (Compare Figures 8 and 9.) This provided a means to obtain values of k and R.A.A.D. for the system at x = 0.305 (see Table XVIII) that could be used for comparison with the other systems. This procedure was necessary only for the Hs NBr-ethanol-water system since it is impossible to conceive of linear plots of log as/ a vs. z for this system (Figures 7, 8, 9). The problem could have been avoided by carrying out the measurements to a higher concentration of salt for the system at x = 0.305 (see footnote to Table XVIII). 

Chrono amperom etry, Chronopotentiometry, Chronopolarography and Oscillographic Pol orography. A "steady state is said to be reached when the current-potential curve of a soln examined by the usual electrochemical methods (such as potentiometric titration, voltammetry, etc) becomes independent of time (at least for the period of time needed to carry out the measurements). However there are electrolitic phenomena which change with time,resulting in the existence of an unsteady... 

Relationships can either be established in an empirical fashion, or by using theories which describe ultrasonic propagation in materials (see section 4). To utilize the full potential of ultrasound for characterizing food materials it is important to choose the most suitable method of carrying out the measurements and to carefully analyze the data. Many applications have failed in the past because workers have used poorly designed experiments or have interpreted measurements in an inappropriate manner. 

This section outlines in detail the specific steps used to carry out the measurements shown in Fig. 18.1. Table 18.3 indicates the suppliers of the reagents and equipment used in gathering the example data. Alternative vendors have also been included for potential future reference. 

Jonathan R. Brewer (University of Southern Denmark, Odense) carried out the measurement of nonlinear optical properties in the context of his PhD research. 

Put the lid in place and switch on the apparatus. Carefully add 0.1 N sodium hydroxide with stirring to adjust to pH 9.2. Using a rapid-flow graduated pipette, transfer about 05 mL of the previously homogenized reference suspension, start the chronometer, and add continuously 0.1 N sodium hydroxide to maintain the pH at 9.0. After exactly 1 min, note the volume of 0.1 N sodium hydroxide used. Carry out the measurement a further four limes. Discoid the first reading and determine the average of the four others (Si). Make two further determinations (S2 and Sa). Calculate ihe average of the values, Si, Si, and S3. 

To carry out the measurement a dish is filled with a water vapor sorbant. The dish is covered with the sample film, sealed with wax and stored in a moist environment. The amount of water vapor that penetrates through the film is calculated from the steady state weight increase of the dish over time. 

The most direct way to carry out the measurements is in places where the measured solar spectrum is found to be nearly identical to the standard AM1.5G spectrum. By measuring the temperature dependence and irradi-ance dependence of the I/V curve parameters, cell properties may be adjusted to the SRC. Since in most places around the world these SRC conditions cannot be met, characterisation laboratories have been set up with suitable apparatus and procedures to do accurate indoor efficiency measurements under SRC according to international standard norms (ASTM, IEC). This involves... 

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