Carbon shales

MODERATE TO HIGH HARD CARBON SHALE PARTICLES MODERATE TO HIGH FREUNDUCH (n 0.4 - 0.7) SLOW, DIFFUSION CONTROLLED... 

Brigand et al. (1992) derived the rock composition ( electrofacies mineralogy and porosity ) from logs and used a four component (sandstone, carbonate, shale, pore fluid) geometric mean equation for thermal conductivity calculation. 

The TOSCOAL Process. The Oil Shale Corp. (TOSCO) piloted the low temperature carbonization of Wyoming subbituminous coals over a two-year period in its 23 t/d pilot plant at Rocky Falls, Colorado (149). The principal objective was the upgrading of the heating value in order to reduce transportation costs on a heating value basis. Hence, the soHd char product from the process represented 50 wt % of the starting coal but had 80% of its heating value. 

Hydrocarbon resources can be classified as organic materials which are either mobile such as cmde oil or natural gas, or immobile materials including coal, lignite, oil shales, and tar sands. Most hydrocarbon resources occur as immobile organic materials which have a low hydrogen-to-carbon ratio. However, most hydrocarbon products in demand have a H C higher than 1.0. 

Carbonate Decomposition. The carbonate content of Green River oil shale is high (see Table 4). In addition, the northern portion of the Piceance Creek basin contains significant quantities of the carbonate minerals nahcoUte and dawsonite. The decomposition of these minerals is endothermic and occurs at ca 600—750°C for dolomite, 600—900°C for calcite, 350—400°C for dawsonite, and 100—120°C for nahcohte. Kinetics of these reactions have been studied (19). Carbon dioxide, a product of decomposition, dilutes the off-gases produced from retorting processes at the above decomposition temperatures. 

Spent shale zone residual carbon burned... 

A variety of shale-protective muds are available which contain high levels of potassium ions (10). The reaction of potassium ions with clay, well known to soil scientists, results in potassium fixation and formation of a less water-sensitive clay. Potassium chloride, potassium hydroxide, potassium carbonate [584-08-7] (99), tetrapotassium pyrophosphate [7320-34-5] (100), and possibly the potassium salts of organic acids, such as potassium acetate [127-08-2] (101) and formate, have all been used as the potassium source. Potassium chloride is generally preferred because of its low cost and availabihty. 

Oil reservoirs are layers of porous sandstone or carbonate rock, usually sedimentary. Impermeable rock layers, usually shales, and faults trap the oil in the reservoir. The oil exists in microscopic pores in rock. Various gases and water also occupy rock pores and are often in contact with the oil. These pores are intercoimected with a compHcated network of microscopic flow channels. The weight of ovedaying rock layers places these duids under pressure. When a well penetrates the rock formation, this pressure drives the duids into the wellbore. The dow channel size, wettabiUty of dow channel rock surfaces, oil viscosity, and other properties of the cmde oil determine the rate of this primary oil production. 

Synthetic Fuels. Hydrocarbon Hquids made from nonpetroleum sources can be used in steam crackers to produce olefins. Fischer-Tropsch Hquids, oil-shale Hquids, and coal-Hquefaction products are examples (61) (see Fuels, synthetic). Work using Fischer-Tropsch catalysts indicates that olefins can be made directly from synthesis gas—carbon monoxide and hydrogen (62,63). Shape-selective molecular sieves (qv) also are being evaluated (64). 

Barium [7440-39-3] Ba, is a member of Group 2 (IIA) of the periodic table where it Hes between strontium and radium. Along with calcium and strontium, barium is classed as an alkaline earth metal, and is the densest of the three. Barium metal does not occur free in nature however, its compounds occur in small but widely distributed amounts in the earth s cmst, especially in igneous rocks, sandstone, and shale. The principal barium minerals are barytes [13462-86-7] (barium sulfate) and witherite [14941-39-0] (barium carbonate) which is also known as heavy spar. The latter mineral can be readily decomposed via calcination to form barium oxide [1304-28-5] BaO, which is the ore used commercially for the preparation of barium metal. 

The choice of selected raw materials is very wide, but they must provide calcium oxide (lime), iron oxide [1309-37-1/, siHca, and aluminum oxide (alumina). Examples of the calcereous (calcium oxide) sources are calcium carbonate minerals (aragonite [14791-73-2] calcite [13397-26-7] limestone [1317-65-3] or mad), seasheUs, or shale. Examples of argillaceous (siHca and alumina) sources are clays, fly ash, mad, shale, and sand. The iron oxide commonly comes from iron ore, clays, or mill scale. Some raw matedals supply more than one ingredient, and the mixture of raw matedals is a function of their chemical composition, as deterrnined by cost and availabiHty. 

Mineral black, a shale sometimes erroneously called rotten stone, contains a large amount of carbon and is used as a filler for paints and other chemical operations. It is pulverized and classified with the same equipment as shale, hmestone, and barite. 

Brick Construction Brick-lined construction can be used for many severely corrosive conditions under which high alloys would fail. Common bricks are made from carbon, red shale, or acidproof refractory materials. Red-shale brick is not used above 175°C (350°F) because of spalhng. Acidproof refractories can be used up to 870°C (1,600°F). 

Most black pigments are made of carbon black formed by depositing carbon from a smoky flame of natural gas on a metal surface. Lampblack is made similarly by burning oik Bone blacks are made from charred bones. Graphite occurs naturally or can be prepared from coal in electric furnaces. Mineral blacks come from shale, peat, and coal dust. Iron oxide blacks are found in nature or prepared. Blue lead sulfate is a pigment for priming. Of these, carbon black is su[XTinr. 

Oil and gas are usually associated with sedimentary rocks. The three basic types of sedimentaiy rocks are shales, sands, and carbonates. The shales are the sources of the hydrocarbons while the sands and carbonates act as the conduits and/or the containers. 

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