Carbon dioxide limitations

Riebesell, U., Wolf-Gladrow, D. A. and Smetacek, V. (1993). Carbon dioxide limitation of marine phytoplankton growth rates, Nature, 361, 249-251. 

Pure carbon dioxide is a nonpolar solvent, no more polar than pentane but in a different solvent family (32). Performing chromatography with pure carbon dioxide limits the user to mostly hydrocarbons and molecules with a long hydrocarbon tail like fatty acids. Very small polar molecules like aniline, phenol, or benzoic acid are slightly soluble but tend to give poor peak shapes or do not elute. 

Government-mandated carbon dioxide limits will be initiated, leading to a need for carbon dioxide sequestration technology and/or the introduction of large amounts of carbon-neutral energy. (Stephen Pacala)... 

The establishment of the structure of monocrotic acid as a, 3-dimethyl-levulinic acid (LXIV) and its formation from monocrotalic acid by loss of carbon dioxide limits very dehnitely the possible structures of the latter. Monocrotalic acid was known to contain one carboxyl group and the presence of a lactone group was indicated on back titration of the acid... 

For heavy molecules with very small rotational state spacing, this limit on AJ puts severe upper limits on the amount of energy that can be taken up in the rotations of a heavy molecule during a collision. Despite these limitations, P(E, E ) distributions have been obtained by inverting data of the type described here for values of AE in the range -1500 cm > AE > -8000 cnD for the two donor molecules pyrazine and hexafluorobenzene with carbon dioxide as a bath acceptor molecule [15,16]. Figure C3.3.11 shows these experimentally derived... 

All forms of carbon, if heated to a sufficiently high temperature, give carbon dioxide in a plentiful supply of air, and carbon monoxide if the supply is limited (p. 178) ... 

Flash points and autoignition temperatures are given in Table 11. The vapor can travel along the ground to an ignition source. In the event of fire, foam, carbon dioxide, and dry chemical are preferred extinguishers. The lower and upper explosion limits are 1% and 7%. 

The concentration of is determined by measurement of the specific P-activity. Usually, the carbon from the sample is converted into a gas, eg, carbon dioxide, methane, or acetylene, and introduced into a gas-proportional counter. Alternatively, Hquid-scintiHation counting is used after a benzene synthesis. The limit of the technique, ca 50,000 yr, is determined largely by the signal to background ratio and counting statistics. 

Significant differences in net photosynthetic assimilation of carbon dioxide are apparent between C, C, and CAM biomass species. One of the principal reasons for the generally lower yields of C biomass is its higher rate of photorespiration if the photorespiration rate could be reduced, the net yield of biomass would increase. Considerable research is in progress (ca 1992) to achieve this rate reduction by chemical and genetic methods, but as yet, only limited yield improvements have been made. Such an achievement with C biomass would be expected to be very beneficial for foodstuff production and biomass energy appHcations. 

For some high growth-rate biomass species, the carbon dioxide concentration in the air among the leaves of the plant often is considerably less than that in the surrounding atmosphere. Photosynthesis may be limited by the carbon dioxide concentrations under these conditions when wind velocities are low and insolation is high. 

The combustible components of the gas are carbon monoxide and hydrogen, but combustion (heat) value varies because of dilution with carbon dioxide and with nitrogen. The gas has a low flame temperature unless the combustion air is strongly preheated. Its use has been limited essentially to steel (qv) mills, where it is produced as a by-product of blast furnaces. A common choice of equipment for the smaller gas producers is the WeUman-Galusha unit because of its long history of successful operation (21). 

Cream of tartar is used in baiting powder and in prepared baiting mixes (see Bakery processes and leavening agents). Its limited solubihty at low temperatures inhibits the reaction with bicarbonate until baiting temperature is reached, thus releasing a significant portion of the carbon dioxide at the optimum time. 

Carbonates. Iron(II) carbonate [563-71-3] FeCO, precipitates as a white soHd when air-free solutions of alkah metal carbonates and iron(II) salts are mixed. The limited tendency of [Fe(H20)g] to hydroly2e is illustrated by the lack of carbon dioxide evolution in this reaction. The soHd rapidly... 

The second important component is the cooling agent or reactor coolant which extracts the heat of fission for some usefiil purpose and prevents melting of the reactor materials. The most common coolant is ordinary water at high temperature and high pressure to limit the extent of boiling. Other coolants that have been used are Hquid sodium, sodium—potassium alloy, helium, air, and carbon dioxide (qv). Surface cooling by air is limited to unreflected test reactors or experimental reactors operated at very low power. 

In air conditioning (qv) of closed spaces, a wider latitude in design features can be exercised (23,24). Blowers are used to pass room or cabin air through arrays of granules or plates. Efficiencies usuaHy are 95% or better. The primary limiting factor is the decreased rate of absorption of carbon dioxide. However, an auxHiary smaH CO2 sorption canister can be used. Control of moisture entering the KO2 canister extends the life of the chemical and helps maintain the RQ at 0.82. 

Alcohol ethoxysulfates have been used in field tests as nitrogen (177) and carbon dioxide (178) foaming agents. Field use of alcohol ethoxysulfates is restricted to low temperature formations owing to its limited hydrolytic stabihty at low pH and elevated temperature (179). It has been reported that some foams can reduce residual oil saturation, not by oil displacement, but by emulsification and imbibition of the oil into the foam (180). 

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