Carbon crustal

This contribution comprehensively reviews the literature reported for particulate emissions of motor vehicles operated under real-world conditions. This article will mainly focus on the results published for size segregated emissions factors of particle mass, elemental and organic carbon, crustal components and selected trace metals, since information is important for health effects studies and source reconciliation modeling efforts. 

Sodium, 22 700 ppm (2.27%) is the seventh most abundant element in crustal rocks and the fifth most abundant metal, after Al, Fe, Ca and Mg. Potassium (18 400 ppm) is the next most abundant element after sodium. Vast deposits of both Na and K salts occur in relatively pure form on all continents as a result of evaporation of ancient seas, and this process still continues today in the Great Salt Lake (Utah), the Dead Sea and elsewhere. Sodium occurs as rock-salt (NaCl) and as the carbonate (trona), nitrate (saltpetre), sulfate (mirabilite), borate (borax, kemite), etc. Potassium occurs principally as the simple chloride (sylvite), as the double chloride KCl.MgCl2.6H2O (camallite) and the anhydrous sulfate K2Mg2(S04)3 (langbeinite). There are also unlimited supplies of NaCl in natural brines and oceanic waters ( 30kgm ). Thus, it has been calculated that rock-salt equivalent to the NaCl in the oceans of the world would occupy... 

In addition to its presence as the free element in the atmosphere and dissolved in surface waters, oxygen occurs in combined form both as water, and a constituent of most rocks, minerals, and soils. The estimated abundance of oxygen in the crustal rocks of the earth is 455 000 ppm (i.e. 45.5% by weight) see silicates, p. 347 aluminosilicates, p. 347 carbonates, p. 109 phosphates, p. 475, etc. 

With the exception of actinium, which is found naturally only in traces in uranium ores, these elements are by no means rare though they were once thought to be so Sc 25, Y 31, La 35 ppm of the earth s crustal rocks, (cf. Co 29ppm). This was, no doubt, at least partly because of the considerable difficulty experienced in separating them from other constituent rare earths. As might be expected for class-a metals, in most of their minerals they are associated with oxoanions such as phosphate, silicate and to a lesser extent carbonate. 

Chemical weathering of crustal material can both add and withdraw carbon from the atmosphere. This has been discussed in Chapter 8. The oxidation of reduced carbon releases CO2 to the atmosphere,... 

Copper exists in crustal rocks at concentrations ranging from about 10 to a few hundred ppm, with 70 ppm being about average. In addition, at least 20 copper minerals have been identified, containing copper in the 0, +1, or -i-II oxidation state. These are primarily sulfides, hydroxides, and carbonates, of which chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), is most common. Copper is also foimd in relatively high concentrations in deep-sea ferromanganese nodules, in many cases at concentrations... 

S C and 8 0 of carbonates from southern Kyushu (Hokusatsu gold district) have been studied in detail (Matsuhisa et al., 1985 Morishita, 1993). Morishita (1993) found that the S C values of hydrothermal solution in the district during the mineralization stages were low (—ll%c), compared with that of average crustal carbon (—7%o), suggesting that of hydrothermal solution is controlled by organic carbon in widely distributed sedimentay rocks of the Cretaceous Shimanto Supergroup basement. 

KEYWORDS Ulsan carbonate rocks, Kyongsang Basin, magnetite deposit, melting/fluxing of crustal carbonate melt, Alkaline A-type granitic rocks... 

Geochemistry of oceanic carbonatites compared with continental carbonatites mantle recycling of oceanic crustal carbonate. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, 142, 520-542. 

Occurrence. In order of abundance in the earth s crustal rocks, it is the third within the transition elements (after Fe and Ti) and the 12th in the general order of all the elements. It occurs in several minerals such as primary deposits of silicates and as secondary deposits (commercially more important) of oxides and carbonates as pyrolusite, Mn02, hausmannite, Mn304, rhodochrosite, MnC03, etc. Large amounts of manganese are present in the deep sea nodules located over certain areas of the ocean floor. 

Figure 5. A plot of A Mg vs. 5 Mg for terrestrial Mg materials. Within best estimates of uncertainties (cross) all of the data lie in the region bounded by equilibrium and kinetic mass fractionation laws. Waters, carbonates, and organic Mg (chlorophyll) have higher A Mg values than mantle and crustal Mg reservoirs represented by mantle pyroxene, loess, and continental basalts. The difference in A Mg values is attributable to episodes of kinetic mass fractionation.

The analysis of fractionation law exponents quantifies the impression from the A -5 plots that aqueous Mg is related to primitive mantle and average crustal Mg by kinetic processes while carbonates precipitated from waters approach isotopic equilibrium with aqueous Mg. In any case, the positive A Mg values of carbonates relative to the primitive chondrite/mantle reservoir and crust is a robust feature of the data and requires a component of kinetic Mg isotope fractionation prior to carbonate formation, as illustrated schematically in Figure 3. 

The high precision with which Mg isotope ratios can be measured using MC-ICPMS opens up new opportunities for using Mg as a tracer in both terrestrial and extraterrestrial materials. A key advance is the ability to resolve kinetic from equilibrium mass-dependent fractionation processes. From these new data it appears that Mg in waters is related to mantle and crustal reservoirs of Mg by kinetic fractionation while Mg in carbonates is related in turn to the waters by equilibrium processes. Resolution of different fractionation laws is only possible for measurements of Mg in solution at present laser ablation combined with MC-ICPMS (LA-MC-ICPMS) is not yet sufficiently precise to measure different fractionation laws. 

Moecher DP, Valley JW, Essene EJ, (1994) Exhaction and carbon isotope analysis of COj from scapolite in deep crustal granulites and xenoliths. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 58 959-967 Mojzsis SJ, Harrison TM, Pidgeon RT (2001) Oxygen-isotope evidence from ancient zircons for liquid water at the Earth s surface 4,300 Myr ago. Nature 409 178-181 Muehlenbachs K, Clayton RN (1976) Oxygen isotope composition of the oceanic crust and its bearing on seawater. J Geophys Res 81 4365-4369... 

In contrast to their rather low dissolved concentrations in seawater, some of the trace metals, e g., iron and aluminum, along with oxygen and silicon, comprise the bulk of Earth s crust. Some trace elements are micronutrients and, hence, have the potential to control plankton species composition and productivity. This provides a connection in the crustal-ocean-atmosphere fectory to the carbon cycle and global climate. 

THE ROLE OF MARINE CARBONATES IN THE CRUSTAL-OCEAN-ATMOSPHERE FACTORY S GEOCHEMICAL EVOLUTION. STABILIZATION. 

The chemical weathering of crustal rock was discussed in Chapter 14 from the perspective of clay mineral formation. It was shown that acid attack of igneous silicates produces dissolved ions and a weathered solid residue, called a clay mineral. Examples of these weathering reactions were shown in Table 14.1 using CO2 + H2O as the acid (carbonic acid). Other minerals that undergo terrestrial weathering include the evaporites, biogenic carbonates, and sulfides. Their contributions to the major ion content of river water are shown in Table 21.1. 

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