Carbohydrates lipids and

The nature of the diet sets the basic pattern of metabohsm. There is a need to process the products of digestion of dietary carbohydrate, lipid, and protein. These are mainly glucose, fatty acids and glycerol, and amino acids, respectively. In ruminants (and to a lesser extent in other herbivores), dietary cellulose is fermented by symbiotic microorganisms to short-chain fatty acids (acetic, propionic, butyric), and metabohsm in these animals is adapted to use these fatty acids as major substrates. All the products of digestion are metabohzed to a common product, acetyl-CoA, which is then oxidized by the citric acid cycle (Figure 15-1). 

The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the aerobic oxidation of carbohydrate, lipid, and protein because glucose, fatty acids, and most amino acids are metabolized to acetyl-CoA or intermediates of the cycle. It also has a central role in gluconeogenesis, lipogenesis, and interconversion of amino acids. Many of these processes occur in most tissues, but the hver is the only tissue in which all occur to a significant extent. The repercussions are therefore profound when, for example, large numbers of hepatic cells are damaged as in acute hepatitis or replaced by connective tissue (as in cirrhosis). Very few, if any, genetic abnormalities of citric acid cycle enzymes have been reported such ab-normahties would be incompatible with life or normal development. 

Chapter 9 shows the importance of PLC in the critical field of medical research, with representative examples of the applications to amino acids, carbohydrates, lipids, and pharmacokinetic studies. 

The human body is mainly composed of nonionic compounds, such as water, carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. Why then are people such good conductors of electricity ... 

Kossjakow114 claims to have isolated a polysaccharide in this way, by a relatively simple procedure, but the reviewer and coworkers11 have been unable to obtain active material by this method. It does appear that the specific substances contain carbohydrate, lipid, and possibly polypeptide constituents similar perhaps to the Foreman antigen (see below) and that the linkages between these constituents are very fragile. 

The absorption efficiency of the different carotenoids is variable. For example, (3-cryptoxanthin has been reported to have higher absorption efficiency than a-cryptoxanthin in rats (Breithaupt and others 2007). Carotenoids must be liberated from the food before they can be absorbed by intestinal cells (Faulks and Southon 2005). Mechanical disruption of the food by mastication, ingestion, and mixing leads to carotenoid liberation (Guyton and Hall 2001). The enzymatic and acid-mediated hydrolysis of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins (chemical breaking of the food) also contributes to carotenoids liberation from the food matrix (Faulks and Southon 2005). Once released, carotenoids must be dissolved in oil droplets, which are emulsified with the aqueous components of the chyme. When these oil droplets are mixed with bile in the small intestine, their size is reduced, facilitating the hydrolytic processing of lipids by the pancreatic enzymes (Pasquier and others 1996 Furr and Clark 1997 ... 

Theory Cortisol (or hydrocortisone) was introduced in the year 1951, for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. It has a significant effect on protein metabolism. It also exerts widespread effects on carbohydrates, lipid and protein synthesis (or anabolism). The cardinal side effects such as excessive potassium excretion and sodium retention, enhanced gastric acidity, oedema, psychosis and negative nitogen balance are some of the exaggerated manifestations of the normal metabolite functions of cortisol. 

The citric acid cycle is at the heart of aerobic cellular metabolism, or respiration. This is true of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms, of plants and animals, of organisms large and small. Here is the main point. On the one hand, the small molecule products of catabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, and amino acids feed into the citric acid cycle. There they are converted to the ultimate end products of catabolism, carbon dioxide and water. On the other hand, the molecules of the citric acid cycle are intermediates for carbohydrate, lipid, and amino acid synthesis. Thus, the citric acid cycle is said to be amphibolic, involved in both catabolism and anabolism. It is a sink for the products of degradation of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins and a source of building blocks for them as well. 

Ace advanced topics — take a closer look at nitrogen compounds, organometallic compounds, the Claisen Condensation and its variations, and biomolecules, such as carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins... 

Glucocorticoids are endogenous compounds that have an effect on carbohydrate, lipid, and protein metabolism, and which exhibit anti-inflammatory, desensitizing, and anti-aUergy action. They are immunodepressants, and they also possess anti-shock and anti-toxic action. 

Pharmacology Thyroid hormones enhance oxygen consumption by most tissues of the body and increase the basal metabolic rate and metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins in the body. 

Riboflavin (vitamin B2) is found in liver, milk, meat, green vegetables, cereals and mushrooms. It is active in the form of two coenzymes, flavin mononucleotide and flavin adenine dinucleotide. As a coenzyme for proton transfer in the respiratory chain it is indispensable for energy-release from carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. Riboflavin deficiency only occurs in combination with deficiencies of other members of the vitamin B family. The symptoms of such deficiency consist of angular stomatitis, lesions of the cornea, dermatoses and normochromic normocytic anaemia. 

Metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins, anti-inflammatory, immunsuppressive... 

Ketone A negative result is typical. Positive results can indicate physiological stress (e.g., fasting, pregnancy). Ketoacidosis and other abnormalities of carbohydrate, lipid, and amino acid metabolism may yield high levels of ketones in the urine and positive strip results. 

The liver is uniquely situated to process and distribute dietary nutrients because the venous drainage of the gut and pancreas passes through the hepatic portal vein before entry into the general circulation. Thus, after a meal, the liver is bathed in blood containing absorbed nutrients and elevated levels of insulin secreted by the pancreas. During the absorptive period, the liver takes up carbohydrates, lipids, and most amino acids. These nutrients are then metabolized, stored, or routed to other tissues. Thus, the liver smooths out potentially broad fluctuations in the availability of nutrients for the peripheral tissues. 

Another important dietary mineral is phosphorus, which comes to us as the phosphate ion, H2P04. As you can see by checking back to Figure 13.26 on page 452, phosphate ions form the backbone of nucleic acids. In addition, they are components of the energy-packed compound adenosine triphosphate (ATP), shown in Figure 13.40, which is produced in the oxidation of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. 

The control of glycogen phosphorylase by the phosphorylation-dephosphorylation cycle was discovered in 1955 by Edmond Fischer and Edwin Krebs50 and was at first regarded as peculiar to glycogen breakdown. However, it is now abundantly clear that similar reactions control most aspects of metabolism.51 Phosphorylation of proteins is involved in control of carbohydrate, lipid, and amino acid metabolism in control of muscular contraction, regulation of photosynthesis in plants,52 transcription of genes,51 protein syntheses,53 and cell division and in mediating most effects of hormones. 

Protein structure may be further complicated by the inclusion of materials such as metal ions and porphyrin rings and by the addition of carbohydrates, lipids and nucleic acids. Such compounds are called conjugated proteins. 

Biochemically, the pantothenate coenzymes are integral in the metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, and nitrogen-containing compounds (185,186). They participate in the TCA or Krebs cycle, as well as fatty acid, phospholipid, sterol (cholesterol), and heme synthesis. The coenzymes mediate the exchange of 2-carbon (acetyl) and other acyl groups. They can serve as... 

Tissues store biochemically useful energy in three major forms Carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. 

Chapter 27 Specific Catabolic Pathways Carbohydrate, Lipid, and Protein Metabolism... 

H NMR spectra have been used to analyze 11 DOM samples that were isolated from seawater using tangential-flow ultrafiltration and one sample that was isolated using dialysis (Aluwihare et al., 1997). A linear combination of three endmembers (carbohydrates, lipids, and acetate) was sufficient to account in some detail for the... 

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