Breast cancer epidemiology

Brinton LA, Devesa SS (1996) Etiology and pathogenesis of breast cancer. Epidemiologic factors. Incidence, demographics and environmental factors. In Harris JR, Lippman ME, Morrow M, Heilman S (eds) Diseases of the breast Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia, pp 159-168... 

McPherson K, Steel CM, Dixon JM (2000) ABC of breast cancer Epidemiology, risk factors and genetics. Br Med J 321 624-628... 

Verner, M. A., Charbonneau, M., Lopez-Carrillo, L., and Haddad, S. (2008). Physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling of persistent organic pollutants for lifetime exposure assessment A new tool in breast cancer epidemiologic studies. Environ Health Perspect 116, 886-892. 

Kelsey, J.L., Breast cancer epidemiology summary and future directions, Ep/Rera/o/Rev., 15,... 

T., Beta-carotene intake and risk of postmenopausal breast cancer. Epidemiology, 10,49,1999. 

Breast cancer is one of the most common forms of cancer affecting women and, in Western countries, the incidence is rising. The risk of breast cancer increases markedly with age, although a decrease in the rate occurs after the menopause, suggesting that development is hormone-dependent. To date, a number of hormone-related risk factors have been identified (Bingham et al, 1998). Countries such as Japan have relatively low rates of breast cancer, which have been associated with consumption of a diet high in soy foods. Currently, however, the data from epidemiological studies is inconclusive. 

The pattern of hormonal risk factors involved in the development of endometrial cancer is similar to those associated with the development of breast cancer. In addition, there is substantial evidence to suggest that HRT can increase the risk (Beral et al, 1999 Bingham et al, 1998). Compared to the UK, the incidence of endometrial cancer in countries such as Japan is relatively low (Bingham et al, 1998). It has been suggested that dietary factors may be responsible for the reduced incidence, and there is indirect evidence from epidemiology studies which suggests that increased consumption of soy products may lower the risk of endometrial cancer. However, these data are not conclusive. To date, no studies have demonstrated a link between consumption of phytoestrogens and an increased risk of endometrial cancer. 

Experimental and epidemiologic evidence suggests an association between breast cancer and the Western diet (high in calories, fat, and cooked meats). Obesity in postmenopausal... 

A subsequent large epidemiologic study found a greater risk for breast cancer with combined estrogen-progestogen use, as well as increased risk for estrogen-only therapy and tibolone, but selection bias was found in the study population. 

Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer (1997) Breast cancer and hormone replacement therapy collaborative reanalysis of data from 51 epidemiological studies of 52,705 women with breast cancer and 108,411 women without breast cancer. Lancet 350 1047-1059... 

Howe, G.R. (1984). "Epidemiology of radiogenic breast cancer," pp. 119 in Radiation Carcinogenesis Epidemiology and Biological Significance, BOICE, J.D., Jr. and Fraumeni, J.F., Jr., Eds. (Raven Press, New York). 

Nakamura, K., McGregor, D.H., Kato, H., and Wakabayashi, T. (1977). Epidemiologic Study of Breast Cancer in A-bomb Survivors, RERF TR 9-77 (Radiation Effects Research Foundation, Hiroshima). 

The use of permanent hair dyes or the occupational exposure to these cosmetic products has recently been discussed because of a possible link to adverse long term effects like genetic effects or carcinogenic effects (l9 2, 3) Epidemiological studies seem to indicate an overrepresentation of lung and breast cancer among occupationally exposed people ( 3). Previously, 2,U-diaminotoluene (TDA), a very common product in hair dyes, has been proven to be an animal carcinogen after oral administration and subcutaneous injection k) ... 

The system of ordered interconnections of a nomological machine means that events of a particular type (inputs) are converted in a regular, predictable fashion into other events (outputs). In the context of the machine, the inputs cause the outputs there is a regular, law-like association between them. The machine itself, however, does not cause the effects, rather it is responsible for the causal laws the relationship between causes and effects (Cartwright, 1999, pl30). For example, the rise in the age at which women have their first child is often said to be one of the causes of the increase in breast cancer in Western countries, as epidemiological... 

S. Safe, Environmental and Dietary Estrogens and Human Health —Is There a Problem Environ. Health Perspect. 105 (1995) 546-51 U. G. Ahlborg et al., Organochlorine Compounds in Relation to Breast Cancer, Endometrial Cancer, and Endometriosis An Assessment of the Biological and Epidemiological Evidence, Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 25 (1995) 465-551. 

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