Bionanocomposites characterization

Ciobanu, G., Ignat, D., and Luca, C. (2009) Polyurethane-hydroxyapatite bionanocomposites development and characterization. Chem. Bull. Tolitehnika Univ. Timisoara, 54 (68), 1-57. 

In another study Feng et al. [86] presented the stmcture and properties of new thermoforming bionanocomposites based on chitin whiskers-graft-polycaprolac-tone. The synthesized material was characterized by FTIR, SEM, TEM and XRD. The surface and mechanical properties were also determined and discussed. Ha-riraksapitak et al. [87] prepared a neat hyaluronan-gelatin scaffolds and chitin-whisker-reinforced hyaluronan-gelatin scaffolds. The obtained cylindrical scaffolds obtained were about 10 mm in diameter and 2 mm in height, whereas the disc-shaped scaffolds were about 1 mm in thickness these were later cut into a desired shape and size for the mechanical property assessment. 

Zia et al. [115] presented that nanostructure and morphological pattern of chitin/bentonite clay based polyurethane bionanocomposites. The clay dispersion within chitin was characterized by both XRD and optical microscopy (OM), which is the most frequently, used and approachable methods to study the structure of nanocomposites. There are one acetamide (-NHCOCH3) group at C-2 position and two (two hydroxy (-OH)) groups at C-3 (C3-OH) and C-6 (C6-OH) positions on chitin chains which can serve as the coordination and reaction sites [95], The crystalline structure of chitin has been reported by many researchers [96],... 

This chapter focuses on the use of nanotechnology in the development of cellulose and chitin nanoctystals and their novel biomedical applications. It consists of four main sections. The first section is a brief introduction. The second section focuses on cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) and their preparation procedure, physical properties, and surface modifications. Cationic modification of CNCs is also presented to produce positively charged CNCs. Various bioapplications of CNCs in bionanocomposites, drug delivery, and biosensors are discussed as well. The third section focuses on chitin nanoctystals (CHNCs). Except for a short introduction on chitin and its structure, the methods of isolation and characterization of chitin are discussed and the surface modifications and properties of CHNCs are summarized. The applications of CHNCs as reinforcing fillers in nanocomposites and several biomedical applications are discussed. The fourth section is a summary and perspective highlighting the future directions on the application of these natural nanoctystals in various key industries related to biomedicine. 

Mallakpour S, Barati A. Preparation and characterization of optically active poly(amide-imide)/Ti02 bionanocomposites containing A-trimelUtylimido-L-isoleucine linkages using ionic liquid and ultrasonic irradiation. J Polym Res 2012 19(2) l-8. 

B. Kord, Studies on mechanical characterization and water resistance of glass fiber/thermo-plastic polymer bionanocomposites. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 123,2391-2396 (2012). 

Sadegh-Hassani, F., Mohammadi Nafchi, A. Preparation and characterization of bionanocomposites films based on potato starch/halloysite nanoclay. Int J. Biol. Macromol. 67, pp. 458 62 (2014)... 

Reddy, J. R, Rhim, J. W. (2014). Characterization of bionanocomposite films prepared with agar and paper-mulberry pulp nanocellulose., 480-488. 

Russell PL (1987) Gelatinisation of starches of different amylose/amylopectin content A study by differential scanning calorimetry. J Cereal Sci 6 133-145 Sadegh-Hassani F, Nafchi AM (2014) Preparation and characterization of bionanocomposite films based on potato starch/halloysite nanoclay. Int J Biol Macromol 67 446 58 Salman H, Blazek J, Lopez-Rubio A, Gilbert EP, Hanley T, Copeland L (2009) Stmcture-function relationships in A and B granules from wheat starches of similar amylose content Carbohydr Polym 75 420-427... 

Bionanocomposites of Regenerated Cellulose Reinforced with Halloysite Nanoclay and Graphene Nanoplatelets Characterizations and Properties... 

Wang Z, Zhou J, Wang X, Zhang N, Sun X, Ma Z (2014) The effects of ultrasonic/microwave assisted treatment on the water vapor barrier properties of soybean protein isolate-based oleic acid/stearic acid blend edible films. Food Hydrocolloids 35 51-58 Wihodo M, Moraru Cl (2013) Physical and chemical methods used to enhance the structure and mechanical properties of protein films a review. J Food Eng 114(3) 292-302 Woehl MA, Canestraro CD, Mikowski A, Sierakowski MR (2010) Bionanocomposites of thermoplastic starch reinforced with bacterial cellulose nanofibers effect of enzymatic treatment on mechanical properties. Carbohydr Polym 80 866-873 Xu YX, Kim KM, Hanna MA, Nag D (2005) Chitosan-starch composite film preparation and characterization. Ind Crops Prod 21 185-192... 

Oksman K, Mathew AP, Bondeson D, Kvien I (2006) Manufacturing process of cellulose whiskers/polylactic acid nanocomposites. Compos Sci Technol 66 2776-2784 Oksman K, Mathew AP, Sain M (2009) Novel bionanocomposites processing, poperties and potential applications. Plast Rubber Compos 38 47-61 Okubo K, Fujii T, Thostenson ET (2009) Multi-scale hybrid biocoraposite processing and mechanical characterization of bamboo fibta reinforced PLA with microfibrillated cellulose. Compos Part A-Appl Sci Manufact 40 469-475... 

X-rays were discovered in 1895 by W.C. Roentgen. When incident on a crystalline material. X-rays interfere with each other. This phenomenon is known as XRD. The WA-XRD is the most cormnonly used method to characterize the stmcture of bionanocomposites because of its ease of use and availability. The WA-XRD has been used to characterize dispersion of layered clays in nanocomposites based on protein (Chen and Zhang 2006 Shabeer et al., 2007 Yu et al., 2007) and starch (Dimonie et al., 2008 Tang et al., 2008). 

Bionanocomposites have benefited from the advances in nanocomposites that have been studied since the early 1990s when researchers created composites using nanostructured clay reinforcements (i.e., nanoscale clay particles imbedded in polymer matrices) that provided significant improvements in dimensional stability, stiffness, and heat distortion temperature relative to the nascent polymer [14-17]. Since then, many other pioneering works along with further achievements in characterization techniques and synthesis of new nanomaterials have opened up many research avenues, leading to a vast number of biopolymer matrices and nanostructured reinforcements that can be used to produce bionanocomposites. 

The advent of nanotechnology principles and characterization techniques means that materials that have been used for many decades are being revisited in search of new properties and applications. Among the new discoveries, bionanocomposites not only exhibit enhancement in mechanical properties (tensile strength (TS), elastic modulus, etc.) and physical properties (better barrier properties, reduced flammability), but also show improved optical transparency, biodegradability, and biocompatibility when compared to traditional composites [17-22]. 

Mathew et al. [196] developed cross-Hnked bionanocomposites using chitosan reinforced with chitin nanocrystals and gluteraldehyde as the cross-linker. These composites were characterized by FTIR, XRD, and atomic force microscopy (AFM). The authors found that cross-hnking and chitin whiskers content were both found to impact the water uptake mechanism. Cross-hnking provided dimensional stabihty in addic medium and significantly decreased the equihbrium water uptake. Moreover, incorporation of chitin nanocrystals provided increased permeation selectivity to chitosan in neutral and addic medium. 

Chitosan-based bionanocomposites with improved properties, namely barrier and mechanical properties, were also prepared by Moura et al. [200] who added chitosan/tripolyphosphate (CS-TPP) nanoparticles to hydroxypropyl methylceUu-lose (HPMC) edible films (Figure 11.14). Samples were characterized by FTIR, TEM, SEM, mechanical properties, water vapor permeability (WVP), and thermal stability. The authors reported that the incorporation of chitosan nanoparticles into the films improved their mechanical and film barrier properties significantly. This behavior was attributed to the chitosan nanoparticles that tend to occupy the empty spaces in the pores of the HPMC matrix, increasing the collapse of the pores and thereby improving film tensile properties and WVP. 

Chitosan/vermiculite (VMT) bionanocomposites were studied by Zhang et al. [199] who prepared their composites by solution mixing of chitosan with three different modified VMTs, viz., hydrochloride (HVMT), sodium (NVMT), and cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (OVMT) treated VMT. Wide-angle X-ray diffraction (WAXD), TEM, and TGA were employed in composite characterization. The authors reported that both WAXD and TEM characterization indicated that the silicate layers were dispersed into the chitosan matrix in a disordered array. It was also found that the thermal stabihty of the bionanocomposites was dependent on the clay modification process. The chitosan/HVMT nanocomposites had the best thermal performance, compared to that of neat chitosan, which was attributed to the good dispersion of acid-modified VMT and better interaction between HVMT and chitosan in the bionanocomposites. 

A. Abdolmalekia, S. Mallakpourb, S. Borandeh, Preparation, characterization and surface morphology of novel optically active poly(ester-amide)/functionalized ZnO bionanocomposites via ultrasonication assisted process, Appl. Surf. Sci. 257 6725-6733,2011. 

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