Biofuel Applications

Akay, G. Dogru, M. Calkan, O.F. Calkan, B. Biomass processing in biofuel applications. In Biofuels for Fuel Cells Lens, P., Westerman, P., Haberbauer, M., Menero, A., Eds. IWA Publishing London, 2005 Chapter 4. 

Thus, there are the prerequisites for biofuel application in Ukraine, in particular, by means of the diversification of the output production of sugar beet industry. 

At present, as discussed in the two earlier sections, the available studies related to safety and health analysis on biofuel production are very limited. To date, neither holistic assessment method nor framework for such analysis has ever been developed. Therefore, in this section, potential approaches for safety and health analysis of biofuel production technologies are presented. These approaches are mainly adopted from those originally developed for petrochemical processes bnt deemed to be also suitable for biofuel application. 

Calero, J., Luna, D., Sancho, E.D., Luna, C., Bautista, F.M., Romero, A.A., Posadillo, A., Berbel, J., Verdugo-Escamilla, C., 2015. An overview on glycerol-free processes for the production of renewable liquid biofuels, applicable in diesel engines. Renewable Sustainable Energy Reviews 42, 1437—1452. 

Chinnasamy, S., Bhatnagar, A., Hunt, R.W., Das, K.C., 2010. Microalgae cultivation in a wastewater dominated by carpet mill effluents for biofuel applications. Bioresources Technology 101, 3097-3105. 

Second, sensors are often intended for a single use, or for usage over periods of one week or less, and enzymes are capable of excellent performance over these time scales, provided that they are maintained in a nfild environment at moderate temperature and with minimal physical stress. Stabilization of enzymes on conducting surfaces over longer periods of time presents a considerable challenge, since enzymes may be subject to denaturation or inactivation. In addition, the need to feed reactants to the biofuel cell means that convection and therefore viscous shear are often present in working fuel cells. Application of shear to a soft material such as a protein-based film can lead to accelerated degradation due to shear stress [Binyamin and Heller, 1999]. However, enzymes on surfaces have been demonstrated to be stable for several months (see below). 

Fuel cells based on unmediated electrocatalysis by heme-containing sugar dehydrogenases have not yet been tested in biological fluids, but may be useful for implantable applications, as they avoid the need for toxic or expensive mediators and have minimal design constraints. Realistically, the lifetime of biofuel cells is still insufficient for biomedical applications requiring surgical installation. 

Of direct interest for biofuel cell applications are the reported reduction of O2 by multi-copper oxidases on carbon nanotube electrodes [Yan et al., 2006 Zheng et al., 2006] and the oxidation of H2 by hydrogenase covalently bound to carbon nanotubes [Alonso-Lomillo et al., 2007]. The hydrogenase/nanotube anode is extremely stable (>1 month), and shows 33-fold enhanced enzyme coverage compared with similarly treated graphite of the corresponding geometric surface area. A. vinosum... 

Okuda J, Yamazaki T, Fukasawa M, Kakehi N, Sode K. 2007. The application of engineered glucose dehydrogenase to a direct electron-transfer-type continuous glucose monitoring system and a compartmentless biofuel cell. Anal Lett 40 431 -440. 

Pahnore GTR, Bertschy H, Bergens SH, Whitesides GM. 1998. A methanol/dioxygen biofuel cell that uses NAD -dependent dehydrogenases as catalysts Application of an electro-enzymatic method to regenerate nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide at low overpotentials. J Electroanal Chem 443 155-161. 

The assessment of the sustainability of the cultivation of energy crops includes the input and recycling of nutrients, the application of pesticides, the water-use efficiency, the consumption of fossil fuels and the balance of soil carbon. The aim is to recycle the nutrients, which is simple in the case of anaerobic digestion by applying the digestate to the field. If crops are combusted many of the minerals can be returned via the ash. In the case of liquid biofuels, exported nutrients are lost and have to be replaced. The application of pesticides, mainly herbicides, can often be reduced in comparison to food production, but the energy yield per hectare might be reduced if the share of weeds exceeds certain thresholds. Water use efficiency,... 

In an effort to use biological energy transduction to miniaturize a biofuel cell for in vivo applications, Heller and co-workers have created membraneless, caseless cells that can function under physiological... 

In contrast, stability is a key aspect of any practical fuel cell, and biofuel cells must have lifetimes ranging from months to years to justify implanted, highly distributed, or consumer portable applications. Such stability is often difficult to achieve in redox enzymes, although introduction of thermophilic species and the use of mutagenic techniques might provide future... 

We begin with a discussion of key applications that can be addressed by biofuel cells and key requirements derived therefrom. The range of possible applications can be broken down into three main... 

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