Application of pheromones

The synthesis of pheromones remains an important cornerstone of pheromone research and development. The initial synthesis of an insect pheromone serves not only to confirm the structural identification, but also provides authentic material for either laboratory or field bioassay. Oftentimes, larger quantities of the pheromones are desired for the development of monitoring and pest control methods. The scale up of the synthesis of complex pheromone compounds is often a major bottleneck in the practical application of pheromones. Also, the unusual structure of some pheromone compounds beckons synthetic chemists to apply new methodology in order to show off their methods. 

Hussain A. (1994) Chemical ecology of Tribolium castaneum Herbst (Coleoptera Tenebrionidae) factors affecting biology and application of pheromone. PhD thesis. Oregon State University, 118 pp. 

Considerable progress has been made over the past decade in the application of insect sex pheromones to pest control programs. As the commercial applications of pheromones have expanded, the demand for larger quantities of certain of these compounds has increased, but many of the published syntheses cannot readily be carried out on a kilogram scale. 

In the light of the poor efficiency of broadcast applications of pheromones in air permeation techniques the alternative practice of scattering or placing a limited number of release points at suitable distances apart over the treated area merits consideration. Since each point will then act as an individual source the treated area will be permeated by a set of individual plumes of pheromone vapor whose direction will vary with airflow through the crop or woodland. Large... 

The application of pheromones to area-wide suppression of population by permeating the air with pheromone to disrupt mating communication has been used in the management of several major pest insects. 

Am, H. 1990. Pheromones Prophecies, economic.s, and the ground swell, in Behaviour-modifying chemicals for insect management applications of pheromones and other attractants, Ridgway RE, Silversiein RM, Inscoe MN (eds.), pp. 717-722. Marcel Dekker, New York. 

Ridgway RL, Silverstein RM, Inscoe MN 1990 Behavior-modifying chemicals for insect management applications of pheromones and other attractants. Marcel Dekker, New York. 

Pheromone science is one of the new fields of science, whose development in the late 20th century was remarkable. Once chemists knew that the communications among a variety of organisms depend on chemical substances termed pheromones, they isolated, identified and synthesized hundreds of pheromones to use them practically for pest control. In this 21st century, practical application of pheromone science in bioindustries is being actively pursued all over the world. My synthetic works have been focused on this branch of science for almost 40 years. This chapter summarizes my works in pheromone science. 

The most important application of pheromones lies in the detection and monitoring of pest infestations. This information is a critical input for pest-management programmes and associated decision-support systems. A vital issue in these predictive models of pest and infestation behaviour is locating infestations and, to this end, precision targeting of infestations by spatial analysis has proved useful (Brenner, 1997). 

Ridgway, R.L., Silverstein, R.M. and Inscoe, M.N. (eds) (1990) Behavior-Modifying Chemicals for Pest Management Applications of Pheromones and Other Attractants. Marcel Dekker, New York. 

Rice, R., and Kirsch, P. (1990). Mating Disraption of Oriental Fruit Moth in the United States. In Behavior-Modifying Chemicals for Insect Management Applications of Pheromones and Other Attractants, ed. Richard L. Ridgway, Robert M. Silver-stein, and May N. Inscoe. New York Marcel Dekker. 

Insect pheromones are used in two ways as a lure to poisoned baits, or to disrupt an insect s mating pattern. However, the practical application of pheromones has, so far, been small, largely because of the high specificity for a particular insect species. Their use seems to be confined to protecting crops of unusually high value. For further reading, see Rothschild (1981) and Kydonieus and Beroza (1982). 

The market for special control techniques that are appropriate for integrated pest management systems is closer to the scope of smaller companies where large-scale production facilities are not essential. Smaller companies have found unique niches in the pest management field, based often on particular expertise or experience. Controlled-release technology is an essential component for formulation and application of pheromones, therefore small companies have entered the market on the strength of this combination of expertise. Patent protection may be obtained to cover the devices and materials used to formulate pheromones, whereas the information relating to the composition of many pheromones is available in the open literature. 

In most large-scale commercial applications of pheromones, the active pheromone is not chiral, a synthetic achiral pheromone of a similar structure is active enough, or a racemic mixture is used. The synthesis and separation of enantiomers is usually too costly for large-scale use, and if the racemic mixture or achiral substitute is effective, this presents a much more economically feasible pest control method (see Sidebar 4.B). 

VII. Practical Applications of Pheromones Status and Projections A. Plea for Sanity and Integrated Pest Management... 

Practical application of pheromone traps for detection and control is furthest advanced for several species of Trogoderma and Attagenus, which include some of the more notorious pests. In fact, small detection traps containing the pheromone and an insecticide are now in use in a number of storage facilities, and on ships for quarantine purposes. The very high levels of response make early detection in a sparse population much more feasible than previous procedures the use of numerous small traps allows for pinpointing the sources of the infestation. Current studies are aimed at improved trap and dispenser design. 

Wood, D. L. Application of pheromones for manipulating forest insect pests. In Proceedings of a Symposium on Insect Pheromones and their Applications. Nagaoka and Tokyo, Japan, December 8—11, 1976.1977. 

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