Antarctic snow

When DDT was widely used, it was released into the environment in a number of different ways. The spraying of crops, and the spraying of water surfaces and land to control insect vectors of diseases, were major sources of environmental contamination. Waterways were sometimes contaminated with effluents from factories where DDT was used. Sheep-dips containing DDT were discharged into water courses. Thus, it is not surprising that DDT residues became so widespread in the years after the war. It should also be remembered that, because of their stability, DDT residues can be circulated by air masses and ocean currents to reach remote parts of the globe. Very low levels have been detected even in Antarctic snow ... 

M. Murozumi, Tsaihwa J. Chow, and C. Patterson. Chemical Concentrations of Pollutant Lead Aerosols, Terrestrial Dusts and Sea Salts in Greenland and Antarctic Snow Strata. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. 33 (Oct. 1969) 1247-1294. Source for details of polar field trips. 

A second type of glaciochemical horizon, a long-term interval of anomalous concentrations rather than a sporadic peak, is demonstrated by Late Wisconsin dust. Greenland and Antarctic snow... 

Greenland, N03-, Cl , Na+, and A1 or microparticles have usable seasonal variations. Sea salt-derived Na and Cl are useful dating species in East Antarctic snow although the variations are lower than in Greenland and the dating errors are consequently higher. Sea salts are satisfactory seasonal indicators in the inland portion of the Ross Ice Shelf and presumably in West Antarctica. Nitrate and sulfate have good seasonal variations on the Ross Ice Shelf, even at the more seaward locations. 

Welch, K.A., Mayewski, P.A. Whitlow, S.l. 1993. Methanesulfonic acid in coastal Antarctic snow related to sea-ice extent. Geophysical Research Letters, 20, 443-446. 

What are the ions in pristine snow Antarctic snow provides a measure of global atmospheric chemistry because there are no local sources of pollution. One study found the following species by ion chromatography ... 

C. Barbante, E. W. Wolff, G. Cozzi, V. Caspar], C. P. Ferrari, and P. Cescon, Ultrasensitive Determination of Heavy Metals at the Sub-pg/g Level in Ultraclean Antarctic Snow Samples by Inductively Coupled Plasma Sector Field Mass Spectrometry, Anal. Chem. Acta 2001,450, 193. 

Grannas, A. M., Shewpson, P. B., and Filley, T. R. (2004). Photochemistry and nature of organic matter in arctic and antarctic snow. Global Biochem. Cycles 18, GB1006, doi 10.1029/2003GB002133. 

Reaction of DEHP vapor with hydroxyl radicals in the atmosphere has been predicted, with an estimated half-life of about 6 hours using the Atmospheric Oxidation Program (Meylan and Howard 1993). The atmospheric half-life, however, is expected to be longer for DEHP adsorbed to atmospheric particulates. Based on the estimated half-life alone, extensive transport of DEHP would not be expected and concentrations in Antarctic snow would not be predicted. Nonetheless, DEHP appears to be present in urban and rural atmospheres (see Section 6.4), and its transport might be mainly in the sorbed state. Data confirming this degradation pathway have not been located. Direct photolysis and photooxidation are not likely to be important (Warns 1987). 

Desideri P, Lepri L, Checchini L, et al. 1994. Organic compounds in surface and deep antarctic snow. 

Desideri PG, Lepri L, Udisti R, et al. 1998. Analysis of organic compounds in Antarctic snow and their origin Int J Environ Anal Chem 7(3-4)331-351. 

Noone D. and Simmonds I. (2002b) Annular variations in moisture transport mechanisms and the abundance of in Antarctic snow. J. Geophys. Res. 107(024), 4742, doi 10.1029/2002JD002262. 

Murozumi M., Chow T. J., and Patterson C. C. (1969) Chemical concentrations of pollutant lead aerosols, terrestrial dusts and sea salts in Greenland and Antarctic snow strata. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 33, 1247-1294. 

As illustrated in detail by Wolff, contaminants in Antarctic snow and ice have their ultimate destination in sea because of the melting process (51). The presence, origin (either local or from other continents) and fate of heavy metals, HNO3, H2SO4 and other substances from fuel combustion and waste burning were reviewed by this author. 

A. T. Townsend, R. Edwards, Ultratrace analysis of Antarctic snow and ice samples using high resolution inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, J. Anal. At. Spectrom., 13 (1998), 463-468. 

C. Barbante, T. Belloni, G. Mezzadri, P. Cescon, G. Scarponi, Ch. Morel, S. Jay, K. van de Velde, Ch. P. Ferrari, C. F. Boutron, Direct determination of heavy metals at picogram per gram levels in Greenland and Antarctic snow by double focusing inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, J. Anal. At. Spectrom., 12 (1997), 925-931. 

W. Chisholm, K. J. R. Rosman, C. F. Boutron, J, P. Candelone, S. Hong, Determination of lead isotopic ratios in Greenland and Antarctic snow and ice at picogram per gram concentrations. Anal. Chim. Acta, 311 (1995), 141-151. 

G. Scarponi, C. Barbante, P. Cescon, Differential pulse anodic stripping voltammetry for ultratrace determination of cadmium and lead in Antarctic snow, Analusis Magazine, 22 (1994), M47-M50. 

G. Scarponi, C. Barbante, C. Buretta, A. Gambaro, P. Cescon. Chemical contamination of Antarctic snow the case of lead, Microchem. J., 55 (1997), 24-32. 

R. Cini N. Degli Innocenti, G. Loglio, G. Orlandi, A. M. Stortini, U. Tesei, Spectrofluorimetric Evidence of the Transport of Marine Organic Matter in Antarctic Snow via Air-Sea Interation. Int. J. Environ. Anal. Chem., 55 (1994), 285-295,... 

The push forward in this field of research came from the landmark work of Clair Patterson and his co-workers at the California Institute of Technology. They were the first to successfully address the problem of obtaining reliable data for Pb in Greenland and Antarctic snow and ice in a famous paper published in the late 1960s (11). At that time, other investigators proved to be unable to emulate this exceptional pioneering work which provided the first clear evidence of massive pollution of the atmosphere of our planet by Pb. 

Studies carried out in Antarctic snow and ice (52, 53) on the isotopic composition of Pb have proved unequivocally that recent snow layers, and hence the present Antarctic troposphere are contaminated by anthropogenic Pb. Isotopic fingerprinting also proved two different sources a natural component associated with aeolian dust and an anthropogenic component. The possible origin of this Pb-rich aerosol is hypothesised to be South America. 

Particular attention has also been given to the reconstruction of recent Pb emissions into the atmosphere, as detected in Greenland and Antarctic snow and ice. Owing to its well known toxicity and wide dispersion in the environment, caused in turn by the massive use as a component in a variety of products such as batteries, pigments, rolled and extruded items, cables sheaths and above all gasoline additives in the form of highly volatile alkyl-Pb compounds, Pb is classified as one of the... 

This technique has been used with success for the direct, simultaneous determination of Ag, Bi, Cd, Co, Cu, Mo, Pb, Pd, Pt, Sb, U and Zn at the low and sub pg/g level in Greenland and Antarctic snow (62). Good detection limits (as reported in Table 3.2) for most of the analysed elements and a repeatability of the measurements ranging between 8 and 25% were reported. 

Figure 3.9. Temporal trend of Pb concentration in Antarctic snow from Victoria Land for the period 1965-1991. (O) Stake D55, ( ) McCarthy Ridge, (A) Styx Glacier plateau. Adapted from refs. (29, 91).

E. D. Suttie, E. W. Wolff, Seasonal input of heavy metals to Antarctic snow, Tellus, 44B (1992), 351-357. 

---