Amphetamine-like compound

Fig. 3 Concentrations reported for amphetamine-like compounds in surface water of different European and American countries. AM amphetamine MDA 3,4-methylenedioxy amphetamine MDMA 3,4-methylenedioxy methamphetamine (ecstasy) MA methamphetamine N/A Values not availabe, not measured...

As it can be observed in Fig. 2, three out of the 16 investigated compounds, namely, heroin, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), and its metabolite 2-oxo, 3-hydroxy-LSD (O-H-LSD), were not detected in any wastewater sample. Two other target analytes, 6-acetyl morphine (6ACM) and A9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), were only present in influent wastewaters and with low detection frequencies. The most ubiquitous compounds, present in all influent and effluent wastewater samples analyzed, were the cocaine metabolite benzoylecgonine, and the amphetamine-like compounds ephedrine (EPH) and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA or ecstasy). Cocaine, cocaethylene (CE, transesterification product of cocaine formed after the joint consumption of cocaine and ethanol), and morphine (MOR) were detected in all influent, but not in all effluent wastewaters (see Fig. 2). 

Cocainics Amphetamine-like compounds Opioids Cannabinoids... 

In agreement with previous works, elimination of amphetamine-like compounds was diverse. Amphetamine and ephedrine are the best removed amphetamine-like compounds in the Ebro River basin. On the other hand, MDMA and methamphet-amine were poorly removed compared to other studies as they were found randomly at higher concentrations in effluents than in influents. Similar to these compounds and in contrast to previous studies, the only lysergic analyte determined in waste-waters, nor-LSD, was poorly or not eliminated during wastewater treatment processes (see Fig. 5). 

The consumption indicator is the metabolic byproduct excreted at the highest rate. It may be a metabolite, as it is the case for cocaine (BE) and heroin (MOR), or the drug itself, as it is the case of amphetamine-like compounds. THC, the most psychoactive cannabinoid of the cannabis herb, is highly metabolized before excretion, thus, the consumption indicator selected (THC-COOH) presents an excretion rate of 0.6%. Despite the fact that OH-THC presents a slightly higher excretion rate (2%), this analyte was not selected to back calculate cannabis use due... 

The present work reports on the presence of illicit drugs and metabolites in waste and surface waters of the Ebro River basin. In agreement to previous works done in this line in other locations of Spain and in diverse European countries, the most abundant and ubiquitous compounds in waters were cocaine and its major metabolite benzoy-lecgonine, and the amphetamine-like compounds ephedrine and ecstasy. Removal of these compounds during wastewater treatment processes was considered satisfactory for most compounds, but not enough to avoid the presence of these... 

Minor Drugs of Abuse Heroin and Amphetamine-Like Compounds. 447... 

Heroin and amphetamine-like compounds (amphetamine, methamphetamine, MDMA or ecstasy, (R,R)(—)-pseudoephedrine (PS-EPH), and (lS,2R)(+)-ephed-rine hydrochloride (EPH-HCl), the last two measured together as total ephedrine) have so far only been detected in airborne particulates in Spain (Tables 5, 6 and 7). Mean heroin concentrations ranged between 10 and 50 pg/m (Table 5), with maximum daily levels reaching 80-90 pg/m. The maximum concentrations were detected in Madrid and A Coruna, and seemed to be independent of population size. As for amphetamine-like compounds, airborne levels were always below 15 pg/m ... 

Table 7 Airborne concentrations of amphetamine-like compounds at urban locations in Spain...

Pharmacological treatment of EDS with amphetamine-like compounds... 

EDS is usually treated using amphetamine-like CNS stimulants or modaflnil, a novel wake-promoting compound unrelated to amphetamines. The most commonly used amphetamine-like compounds aremethamphetamine, D-amphetamine, methylpheni-date, pemoline, and mazindol. The most important pharmacological property of these compounds is to release catecholamines, i.e., dopamine and norepinephrine. Amphetamine-like compounds also share the property of blocking the reuptake and the degradation of these monoamines (monoamine oxidase inhibition at high doses). All these properties presynaptically enhance dopamine transmission, which are likely to contribute to the EEG arousal effects of amphetamines. 

In discussing MDA and MMDA, psychiatrist Claudio Naranjo points out that a tiny percentage of the population is intensely sensitive to one-ring substituted amphetamines. Such persons may exhibit extreme reactions including sweating and hypertension as sometimes occurs with other amphetamine-like compounds. His recommendation is that an initial experience be of a low dosage. 

Dirinck et al., " successfully apphed GC/FTIR to the analysis of amphetamine-like compounds in judiciary exhibits. With fight-pipe GC/FTIR, unique vapor-phase infrared spectra were generated, allowing the unambiguous differentiation between closely related amphetamines. The obtained vapor-phase spectra were submitted to a spectral search on a laboratory-made vapor-phase FTIR library. Several amphetamine analogues have been identified in confiscated powders and tablets using this approach. 

Ephedrine (EPH), which is used mainly for therapeutic purposes, was the amphetamine-like compound detected most frequently at the inlet of the Spanish WWTPs investi ted, being measured at levels between 220 and 725 ng/L (Postigo et al., 2008b, 2010). 3,4-Metltylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA or ecstasy) was... 

In recent years, several pnblieations have reported the occurrence of illicit dmgs and metabolites in waste and surface waters in Spaia The studies performed so far have shown, in general, incomplete removal of these compounds in the WWTPs investigated, and their consequent presence in the receiving river waters, although at lower concentrations than in wastewater. CO and BE seem to be the most efficiently removed compounds, and cannabinoids and amphetamine-like compounds the least. Nevertheless, removal rates varied widely between compounds and plants and the interpretation of the results must be handled with caution, since sample collection in most of the cases did not take into account the WWTP l draulic residence time and water samples occasionally were not composite. 

Overall, the most ubiquitous and abundant compounds in both treated wastewaters and surface waters in Spain were CO and its metabolite BE, the opioid CODE, METH, its metabolite EDDP, the THC metabolite THC-COOH, and the amphetamine-like compounds EPH and MDMA. Geographically, comparatively lower concentrations of these substances, and presumably lower consumption of illicit drags, were reported in northwest than in northeast-east of Spain. The highest levels were foimd in samples from the Castelldn WWTP (eastern Spain), but this occurred on the occasion of a music event and, therefore, are probably not representative. 

Nutmeg in sufficient dosage is reported to have psychotropic properties (hallucinations, feelings of unreality, euphoria, delusions, etc.) these have been proposed to be due to myristicin or to its metabolic conversion to amphetamine-like compounds. However, the psychotropic effects of myristicin need further investigation, and the amphetaminelike metabolite(s) theory has recently been questioned. Other CNS activities reported... 

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