Alkaline cell manufacturers

Alkaline cells offer the highest energy density (more energy per given volume) of any zinc-manganese dioxide cell, and the manufacturers continue to improve on performance. In 1998, Duracell intro-... 

The alkaline cell has a longer operating life than a Leclanche cell, but, because only high-grade electrolytically manufactured Mn02 can be used, the cost of manufacture is higher. 

The manufacture of secondary batteries based on aqueous electrolytes forms a major part of the world electrochemical industry. Of this sector, the lead-acid system (and in particular SLI power sources), as described in the last chapter, is by far the most important component, but secondary alkaline cells form a significant and distinct commercial market. They are more expensive, but are particularly suited for consumer products which have relatively low capacity requirements. They are also used where good low temperature characteristics, robustness and low maintenance are important, such as in aircraft applications. Until recently the secondary alkaline industry has been dominated by the cadmium-nickel oxide ( nickel-cadmium ) cell, but two new systems are making major inroads, and may eventually displace the cadmium-nickel oxide cell - at least in the sealed cell market. These are the so-called nickel-metal hydride cell and the rechargeable zinc-manganese dioxide cell. There are also a group of important but more specialized alkaline cell systems which are in use or are under further development for traction, submarine and other applications. 

The three major small alkaline cylindrical coin/button cell systems are alkaline (Zn-Mn02), sUver-zinc (Zn-Ag20), and zinc-air (Zn-02). These cells are manufactured on an automated production line, similar to the automated cell manufacturing process outlined above in Fig. 2 for their larger cousins, alkaline zinc-manganese dioxide cell, but are modified for their smaller cell dimensions and cell chemistries. Modem production processes produce cells at a rate of several hundreds of cells per minute. Cells are available in... 

Fig. 5 Comparison of AA Li-FeS2 cells and alkaline cells at low temperature (courtesy of Energizer Battery Manufacturing Inc.)...

Often, the consumer is confronted with the need to decide which battery is best to replace an expired battery. It is generally advisable to follow the device manufacturer s recommendation for the chemistry of the battery. For example, if a carbon zinc battery is chosen rather than an alkaline cell because of lower cost, the result may be very poor utilization of the battery if the application is not appropriate and opposes the recommendation of the manufacturer of the device. If a comparison among different battery manufacturers for a given type of battery is desired, there are many independent studies of different batteries available to the consumer. 

While the anode is referenced relative to its base metal composition, anodes are seldom pure metal. In the case of carbon zinc cells, lead is often added at about 0.5 % to help with the metal drawing and can manufacturing process. Alkaline cells today, with the removal of mercury from the gel formulations, rely upon a number of different elements to minimize hydrogen generation resulting from water decomposition. Common elements include In, Al, Bi, Sn, and Pb at about the 500 ppm level. Lithium cells often contain Al, at about 0.5 % level to increase the tensile strength and to control the formation of a passivation layer from the reactiOTi of the lithium metal with the organic electrolyte components [2]. 

The Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC) was one of the first modern fuel cells to be developed, beginning in 1960. The application at that time was to provide on-board electric power for the Apollo space vehicle. Desirable attributes of the AFC include excellent performance compared to other candidate fuel cells due to its active O2 electrode kinetics and flexibility to use a wide range of electro-catalysts. The AFC continues to be used it now provides on-board power for the Space Shuttle Orbiter with cells manufactured by UTC Fuel Cells. 

In all about 200 trademarks are registered. Apart from this, alkaline cells are offered in four different classes. The manufacturers attempt to make these classes differentiable by using certain labels, but a uniform designation has not been introduced. As has already been mentioned, choosing a product is a complex problem, with the consumer mainly making a decision on the brand and price. 

About 75 percent of the caustic produced is concentrated. The remainder is used directly as alkaline cell liquor—as, for example, in the conversion of propylene to propylene oxide by the chlorhydrin process. Similarly, there is some chlorine produced by methods that do not produce caustic, as shown in Table 12.18. Fused chloride salt electrolysis produces chlorine in the manufacture of magnesium metal by the Dow process, and of sodium metal in the Downs cell. The only other process of note is the Kel-Chlor process. This process converts by-product HCl to chlorine by oxidation with NO2 through the intermediates NOCl and HNSO5. 

Uses. Nickel nitrate is an intermediate in the manufacture of nickel catalysts, especially those that are sensitive to sulfur and therefore preclude the use of the less expensive nickel sulfate. Nickel nitrate also is an intermediate in loading active mass in nickel—alkaline batteries of the sintered plate type (see Batteries, SECONDARY cells). Typically, hot nickel nitrate symp is impregnated in the porous sintered nickel positive plates. Subsequendy, the plates are soaked in potassium hydroxide solution, whereupon nickel hydroxide [12054-48-7] precipitates within the pores of the plate. 

The dry cell was invented by Leclanche in the 1860s. This type of battery was developed in the 19th century. In the 1940s, Rubel achieved significant progress in alkaline-zinc batteries, and manufactured zinc powder with high surface area to prevent zinc passivation. 

The design of a AA-size alkaline manganese dioxide cell is shown in Fig. 1 (Sec. 3.1). Primary and secondary alkaline batteries are constructed in the same way and can be manufactured on essentially the same machinery. The separator material, electrode formulation, and the Mn02 Zn balance are different. Rechargeable cells are zinc-limited to prevent a discharge beyond the first electron-equivalent of the MnOz reduction. The electrolyte is 7-9 mol L KOH. The electrode reactions are ... 

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