Adaptation and Accidents

It has been proved, he said, that things could not be otherwise, for everything being made for a purpose, everything must necessarily be made for the best purpose. Notice that noses have been made to support spectacles, and thus we have spectacles. Legs are obviously intended to be trousered, and we have trousers. 

First a simple question. Which of these hands are you more likely to pick up  

However, by no means everything we observe in a living organism is an adaptation, or, if it is, it may be a different kind of adaptation from what it appears to be at first sight. The vitamin A in polar bear liver is not a mechanism to protect the animal from predators an animal as large as a polar bear has no predators in the normal course of its life (if we ignore occasional unhappy encounters with killer whales), and the unfortunate explorers who 

Other accidental changes may have been preserved simply because it did not matter much one way or another. The majority of the differences that exist between the proteins of different organisms, including the insulins of pigs, dogs, and humans, are probably of this kind. Although in the early days of studies of 

As hfe became more complicated, this system became inadeqnate to the task, because manufacture of more efficient enzymes and other proteins 

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Experimentation is important at aU levels of control [166]. For manual tasks where the optimization criteria are speed and smoothness, the limits of acceptable adaptation and optimization can only be known from the error experienced when occasionally crossing a limit. Errors are an integral part of maintaining a skill at an optimal level and a necessary part of the feedback loop to achieve this goal. The role of such experimentation in accidents cannot be understood by treating human errors as events in a causal chain separate from the feedback loops in which they operate. 

Woods has stressed the importance of adaptation in accidents. He describes organizational and human failures as breakdowns in adaptations directed at coping with complexity, and accidents as involving a drift toward failure as planned defenses erode in the face of production pressures and change [214],... 

Other official exceptions were made for the helicopter operations, such as allowing them in the Security Zone without AWACS coverage. Using STAMP, the accident can be understood as a dynamic process where the operations of the Army and Air Force adapted and diverged without effective communication and coordination. 

STAMP views an accident as a dynamic process. In this case. Army and Air Force operations adapted and diverged without communication and coordination. OPC had operated inddent-liree for over three years at the time of the shootdown. During that time, local adaptations to compensate for inadequate control from above had managed to mask the ongoing problems until a situation occurred where local adaptations did not work. A lack of awareness at the highest levels of command of the severity of the coordination, communication, and other problems is a key factor in this accident. 

This appendix details a simple calculation program that allows the rough evaluation of transients and accidents in the primary system of a PWR. It can however be adapted to other types of water reactors. 

Based on an acceptable cost-benefit and risk-benefit-assessment for both public and individual health, a pharmacist is mandated for the legal provision of medicines used to treat his patients. This scope is defined by Acts, Ordinances or Decrees, national or regional needs, and, in hospitals, is formalised in the formulary, normally defined by a medicines committee. This formulary includes medicines, controlled medicines, devices, chemicals, disinfectants, and ethanol in various concentrations and presentations. Each pharmacy should be responsible for ensuring that a locally agreed list of products should be available to meet the needs of the business even in times of accidents and catastrophes (Table 3.1). This list is adapted and recalculated from a list of a Swiss University Hospital, which has been agreed by emergency and ICU, anaesthesia, and hospital pharmacy... 

Summala, H. 1997. Hierarchical model of behavioural adaptation and traffic accidents. In Rothengatter, T. and Carbonell Vaya, E. (eds.) Traffic Transport Psychology, Theory, and Applications. Oxford Pergamon. 

Accident countermeasures such as mandatory seatbelt wearing, airbags installed in cars, antilock brakes, and so on lead to behavioural adaptation, and this is because they fail to lower the level of risk people are willing to accept. According to risk homeostasis theory (RHT Wilde, 1978, 1982), the added sense of control and of being protected that such measures provide leads drivers to adopt one form or other of behavioural adjustment for the purpose of satisfactions other than safety, and per capita risk essentially remains the same. 

Chorlton, K., Hess, S., Jamson, S.L., and Wardman, M. 2011. Deal or no deal Can incentives encourage widespread adoption of intelligent speed adaptation devices Accident Analysis and Prevention, 48, 73-82. 

The HFACS method was initially developed to avoid mishaps in naval aviation, and has later been applied in several other domains similar to the space domain. Hence, it seems well suited to ESA. However, it should be adapted to the space environment. It consists of a comprehensive analysis of previous accidents, also identifying lacks in barriers that are more remote from the incident itself, as management or supervision or organisational causes Thus, taxonomy such as HFACS could be adapted and implemented in order to have an empirical background to implement and work with tools such as Human Reliability Analysis (HRA). 

Table 9-1. Man drives as he lives . High-accident taxi drivers are much more likely to be involved in various social agencies than accident-free drivers. Cell entries are the percent of high-accident drivers and accident-free drivers involved with various social agencies (adapted from Tillman and Hobbs, 1949).

It has therefore been necessary to await more favourable circumstances before starting the process of changing the dominant way of thinking about error, at least in the research domain. The industry has become aware of two recurrent problems in traditional approaches to safety (a) the accident rate reached a plateau despite optimising solutions to block errors [16, op. cit.] and (b) the use of increasing numbers of procedures to reduce the number of incidents and accidents has sown the seeds of reduced adaptability on the part of operators, so that they have lost part of their ability to manage risks. 

The idea of a single model of safety that applies in every context and aims to have zero accident is naive. Safety is a social construct and it adapts to demand. As this section shows, there are many different responses to safety, which describe a number of different models of safety (resilience, HRO, ultrasafe), each with their own approach, advantages and limitations. These models take different approaches to the trade-off between the benefits of adaptability and the benefits of the level of safety. 

The fault tree identifies component failures that cause the top event. Systems ma be required to respond in different ways to different accidents, suggesting a general top event )r a general purpose fault tree that adapts to specific system configurations. This may result in ambi jity in the top event definition and difficulty in construction. It is better and easier to prec fy... 

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