A BRIEF HISTORY

Staudinger s concept of the existence of macromolecules came two decades later [3]. It paved the way to the systematic study aimed at producing synthetic fibers carried out by Carothers at DuPont in the late 1920s and early 1930s [4], from which stems the still-used concepts of addition and condensation polymerizations. 

A survey of important examples of polycondensation reactions can be found in Table 3.1. 

1) The symbols used in diis chapter are listed at the end of the text, under Notation . 

Handbook of Potymtr Reaction Enpneering. Edited by T. Meyer, J. Keuren es Copyright 2005 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH Co. KGaA, Weinheim ISBN 3-527-31014-2 

Di-sodium sulfide monomer/sodium sulfide end group 

The earliest known solution to what is now called the Poisson-Boltzmann equation appears to be due to Liouville who, while investigating surfaces of constant curvature, showed that the solution to the differential equation 

The publication in 1948 of a monograph by Verwey and Overbeek detailing work done by them and others during World War II on the application of the PB equation, and, in particular, the Gouy-Chapman version of it, to the study of colloids has proved to be as important as the initial publications by Gouy and Chapman and Debye and Hiickel. This study laid the foundation for the modern study of colloids and has served as the primary guidepost for most of the work described here. Today, the PB equation, and in particular the Debye-Hiickel (DH) linearized approximation, forms the foundation for modern descriptions of electrolyte and colloid theory. New theories are compared with and often derived from the nonlinear Poisson-Boltzmann equation and in the appropriate limits reduce to the DH result. As has been shown by modern statistical methods, the Debye-Hiickel theory of electrolyte solutions is analogous to the lowest-order harmonic approximation in potential theory.  

While we are not aware of any hard data to support this assertion, many within the operations research community have argued that one of the reasons for the success of decision support models in supply chain management is the fact that ERP systems have made available the (previously unavailable) data that these models require. This is certainly quite possible. In addition, many stand-alone decision support systems make use of data from ERP systems, but are not integrated with the ERP system and not viewed as ERP decision support systems. This would therefore clearly be an indirect ERP benefit. 

The use of chemicals, and chemical mixtures, to produce heat, light, smoke, noise, and motion has existed for several thousand years, originating most likely in China or India. India has been cited as a particularly good possibility due to the natural deposits of saltpeter (potassium nitrate, KNO3) found there.  

Much of the early use of chemical energy involved military applications. Greek fire, first reported in the seventh century A.D., was probably a blend of sulfur, organic fuels, and saltpeter that generated flames and dense fumes when ignited. It was used in a variety of incendiary ways in both sea and land battles and added a new dimension to military science.  

At some early time, most likely prior to 1000 A.D., an observant scientist recognized the unique properties of a blend of potassium nitrate, sulfur (brimstone), and charcoal, and black powder was developed as the first modem high-energy composition. 

Chinese fireworks remain popular in the United States today, along with an assortment of other types of pyrotechnic articles that produce a wide assortment of visible and audible effects. The Japanese also produce beautiful fireworks, but curiously, they do not appear to have developed the necessary technology until fireworks were brought to Japan around 1600 A.D. by an English visitor. Many of the advances in fireworks technology over the past several centuries have come from these two Asian nations, and China today is the world s primary supplier of both consumer and display fireworks. 

The use of pyrotechnic and propellant mixtures for military purposes in rifles, rockets, flares, and cannons developed simultaneously with the dviliau applications, such as fireworks. Progress in both areas followed advances in modem chemistry, as new chemical compounds were isolated and synthesized and became available commercially to the pyrotechnician. Berthollet s discovery of potassium chlorate in the 1780s resulted in the ability to produce brilliant flame colors using pyrotechnic compositions, and color was added to the effects of sparks, noise, and motion previously available using potassium nitrate-based compositions. 

The most fascinating episodes of the long history of aniline concern its discovery, and the accidental discovery of its industrial use as a precursor to dyes. 

Unverdorben, O. (1806-1873) first discovered aniline in 1826, following a dry and destructive distillation of indigo plant and called it crystalline, due to the fact that his new compound easily produced crystals with acids10. 

(1795-1867) rediscovered aniline in coal tar oil in 1834, but named it kyanol, because a bright blue color appeared whenever it was mixed with a bleaching powder (chloride of lime)11. Note that in his pioneer work, Runge also discovered, for the first time, phenol (called then carbolic acid ), pyrrole, quinoline, naphthalene, rosolic acid and some other bases12. 

A few years later, Fritzsche, C. J., (1808-1871) isolated in 1840 the same oil when distilling indigo in the presence of a potassium base, and called it aniline. The latter was named after an indigo-yielding plant Indigofera anil, but also after the Arabic term al-nil, which means indigo13, and the Sanskrit terms ntla (dark-blue) and mid (indigo plant). 

About the same time, Zinin, N. (1812-1880) was able, in 1842, to carry out an original synthesis of aniline, that he named benzidam, and of some other aromatic amines by reduction reaction of nitrobenzenes. As for a reducing agent, Zinin utilized a solution of ammonium sulfide to generate molecular hydrogen14,15. 

In his 1951 Tilden Lecture [61] entitled the Contributions of Wave Mechanics to Chemistry Coulson took the electronic charge density, or in short the electron density, as the origin of binding. He stated that we might say that the description of a bond is essentially the description of the pattern of the charge cloud... Indeed in the very last resort, we cannot entirely separate the charge cloud for one bond from that for another bond. The electron density is also the starting point of standard QCT to formulate its definition of 

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A brief history of chemical kinetic methods of analysis is found in the following text. 

Early research and development is described in a symposium proceedings (54). The status of the CANDU program as of 1975 is given in Reference 55 and a brief history maybe found in a more recent pubHcation of the American Nuclear Society (37). 

Directions in Eow-Eevel Radioactive Waste Management A Brief History of Commercial Eow-Eevel Radioactive Waste Disposal, DOE/LLW-103, Rev. 1, The National Low-Level Waste Management Program, INEL, Idaho Eads, Idaho, Aug. 1994. 

In the three decades following the publication of Rosenhain s book, the physieal science of metals and alloys developed rapidly, so that by 1948 it was possible for Robert Franklin Mehl (1898-1976) (see Smith 1990, Smith and Mullins 2001 and Figure 3.15), a doyen of American physical metallurgy, to bring out a book entitled A Brief History of the Science of Metals (Mehl 1948), which he then updated in the... 

Mehl, R.F. (1948) A Brief History of the Science of Metals (American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, New York). 

Bishopp, J.A., A brief history of the redux bonding process, structural adhesives in engineering V, 5th Int. Structural Adhesives in Engineering Conference (SAE-V). Bristol, UK, 1998. 

Roth, H. D. A Brief History of Photoinduced Electron Transfer and Related Reactions. 156, 1-20 (1990). 

The present article will consist of a brief History of SP (Section II) Representative SP and their Uses (Section III) Production Methods of Representative Propellants (Section. IV) Physical Characteristics of Representative Propellants (Section V) Chemical Characteristics Performance (including modern concepts of ignition and combustion) (Section VI) Explosion Hazards (Section VII) and Brief Summaries of Recent Literature on SP (Section VIII)... 

A brief history of (3p-2p)7i bonds between phosphorus and carbon followed by an introduction to the methods of phosphaalkene synthesis that are pertinent to this review will be provided. The earliest stable compound exhibiting (3p-2p)7x bonding between phosphorus and carbon was the phosphamethine cyanine cation (1) [33]. An isolable substituted phosphabenzene (2) appeared just two years later [34]. The parent phosphabenzene (3) was later reported in 1971 [35]. These were remarkable achievements and, collectively, they played an important role in the downfall of the long held double bond rule . The electronic delocalization of the phosphorus-carbon multiple bond in 1-3, which gives rise to their stability, unfortunately prevented a thorough study of the chemistry and reactivity of the P=C bond. 

In the second section we present a brief overview of some currently used dynamic modeling methods before introducing cellular automata. After a brief history of this method we describe the ingredients that drive the dynamics exhibited by cellular automata. These include the platform on which cellular automata plays out its modeling, the state variables that define the ingredients, and the rules of movement that develop the dynamics. Each step in this section is accompanied by computer simulation programs carried on the CD in the back of the book. 

Hugo W.B. (1995) A brief history of heat, chemical and radiation preservation and disinfectants. Inti BiodetBiodeg, 36, 197-217. 

Electrocatalysis of Oxygen Reduction in Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells A Brief History and a Critical Examination of Present Theory and Diagnostics... 

From a technical standpoint, this article emphasizes recent advances in sample preparation and instrumentation. A brief history of modern sample preparation techniques is covered, together with the impact of modern instrumentation on water sample analysis. 

Vanderwolf, C.H., and Leung, L.W.S. Hippocampal rhythmical slow activity A brief history and the effects of entorhinal lesions... 

Packe, Christopher. Medela chymica or, an account of the vertues and uses of a select number of chymical medicines adapted to the cure of the most chronick and rebellious diseases. To which is subjoyned A brief history of cures effected by them. As also, An essay upon the acetum acerrimum philosophorum, or vinegar of antimony with some experiments made therewith. London John Lawrence, 1708. 178p. 

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