Whole blood cadmium

OSHA also requires biomonitoring of workers for cadmium exposure. Medical surveillance is required for all workers if their urine concentration of cadmium exceeds 3 pg/g creatinine, the Beta-2 microglobulin exceeds 300 pg/g creatinine, or the cadmium in whole blood exceeds 5 pg/liter (29 CFR 1910.1027 [2005]). 

Nixon DE, Moyer TP. Routine clinical determination of lead, arsenic, cadmium, mercury, and thaUium in urine and whole blood by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry Spectrochim Acta 1996 51B ... 

Stoeppler, M. and Brandt. K. (1980). Contribution to automated trace analysis. Part V. Determination of cadmium in whole blood and urine by electrothermal atomic-absorption spectrophotometry. Fresenius Z. Anal. Chem., 300,372. 

Subramanian, K.S., Meranger, J.C. and Connor, J. (1983). The effect of container material, storage time and temperature on cadmium and lead levels in heparinized human whole blood. J. Anal. Toxicol., 7,15. 

Jagner, D., Josefson, M., Westerlund, S. and Aren, K. (1981). Simultaneous determination of cadmium and lead in whole blood and in serum by computerized potentiometric stripping anaiysis. Anal. Chem. 53,1406. 

Herber, R.F.M., Stoeppler, M., andTonks, D. (1990a). Cooperative interlaboratory surveys of the determination of cadmium in whole blood. Fresenius J. Anal Chem. 3 269-278. 

Christensen, J.M. and Pedersen, L.M. (1986). Enzymatic digestion of whole blood for improved determination of cadmium, nickel and chromium by electrothermal atomic absorption spectrophotometry Measurements in rheumatoid arthritis and normal humans. Acta Pharmacol. Toxicol. 59, 399-402. 

Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrometric Determination of Lead and Cadmium in Whole Blood and Urine with On-line Preconcentration by Coprecipitation 232... 

Welz et al.[l] determined cadmium in whole blood digests by flame AAS following on-line coprecipitation using a modified procedure of that used for the determination of lead. Cadmium is coprecipitated with the carrier Fe(II)-HMDTC which is collected in a knotted reactor and dissolved by IBMK. A 52-fold signal enhancement was obtained with a sampling frequency of 72 h (for details cf. Sec. 9.5.3). 

Fang and Dong [3] determined cadmium in whole blood digests by ETAAS with on-line coprecipitation-dissolution also using the Fe(II)-HMDTC system, achieving a detection limit of 0.003 /ig 1 ... 

Fang and Dong [3] determined nickel in whole blood digest by ETAAS following on-line coprecipitation-dissolution using the same filterless system as for cadmium. A detection limit of 0.02 pg 1 was reached, making it possible to determine nickel in the blood of unexposed persons. 

H3. Hauser, T. R., Hinners, T. A., and Kent, J. L., Atomic absorption determination of cadmium and lead in whole blood by a reagent-free method. Atud. Chem. 44, 1819-1821 (1972). 

Welz et al. [59] expanded the procedure to the determination of cadmium, cobalt, and nickel in whole blood, urine, liver, animal and plant tissues. They found that about 70% of the cadmium and 50% of the cobalt and nickel were retained in the collector. Enrichment factors of 24, 19, and 20 and enhancement factors of 52, 43, and 52 were obtained for cadmium, cobalt, and nickel, respectively, with a 40-sec coprecipitation time. Detection limits were 0.15, 1.3, and 1.5 p.g/liter, respectively, and the precision was typically around 2%. 

Fang and Dong [60] adapted the online coprecipitation preconcentration for ETAAS. They determined cadmium and nickel in digested whole blood. Enrichment factors of 16 and 8 were obtained for cadmium and nickel, respectively, using 20- and 40-sec precipitate collection times at a flow rate of 3 mL/min for cadmium and 2 mL/min for nickel. The detection limits were 0.003 p,g/liter for cadmium and 0.02 ng/liter for nickel. 

Cadmium in blood (CdB), standardized to liters of whole blood (Iwb). 

Cadmium is present in whole blood bound to albumin, in erythrocytes, and as a metallothionein-cadmium complex. The metallothionein-cadmium complex that represents the primary transport mechanism for cadmium delivery to the kidney. CDB concentrations in the general, nonexposed population average 1 pg Cd/I whole blood, with smokers exhibiting higher levels (see Section 5.1.6). Data presented in Section 5.1.6 shows that 95% of the general population not occupationally exposed to cadmium have CDB levels less than 5 pg Cd/I. 

Claeys-Thoreau (1982) and DeBenzo et al. (1990) diluted blood samples at a ratio of 1 10 with a matrix modifier (0.2% Triton X-100, a wetting agent) for direct determinations of CDB. DeBenzo et al. also demonstrated that aqueous standards of cadmium, instead of spiked, whole-blood samples, could be used to establish calibration curves if standards and samples are treated with additional small volumes of matrix modifiers (i.e., 1% HNO3, 0.2% ammonium hydrogenphosphate and 1 mg/ml magnesium salts). 

DeBenzo Z, Fraile R, and Carrion N. (1990). Electrothermal atomization atomic absorption spectrometry with stabilized aqueous standards for the determination of cadmium in whole blood. Anaiytica Chimica Acta, 231, 283-288. 

Micheils E and DeBievre P (1986). Method 25—Determination of cadmium in whole blood by isotope dilution mass spectrometry. O Neill I, Schuller P, and Fishbein L (Eds.), Environmental Carcinogens Selected Methods of Analysis (Vol. 8). Lyon, France International Agency for Research on Cancer. 

Valenta, H. Riizel, H. W. Niimberg and M. Stoeppler, Trace chemistry of toxic metals in biomatrices. II. Voltammetrlc determination of the trace content of Cadmium and other toxic metals in human whole blood, Z.Anal.Chem., 285 25 (1977). 

In summary, it can be concluded that the probability of developing Cd-induced renal dysfunction in male Cd workers appears to be very low when the critical CdU level of 10 yg/g creatinine is not regularly exceeded. This CdU level corresponds to an average cadmium body burden of 160 mg. From the dose-response relationship between CdB and the prevalence of signs of renal dysfunction, at least in workers currently exposed to cadmium, a value of 1 yg Cd/100 ml whole blood is proposed as a tentative no-effect level for long-term Cd exposure (Buchet et al. 1980b). 

An internal quality control should be performed with each analytical run. Control materials for internal quality control of cadmium analytical procedures are commercially available, e.g., certified reference material for trace elements in urine, plasma, serum, and whole blood [46,47]. 

Bursa (1996) studied the population consisted of 40 pregnant women (living in the Silesia district over 10 years and non-professionally exposed to heavy metals) and their 40 newborns, who had perinatal period problems (mainly respiratory effort). The concentrations of cadmium in whole maternal blood and in cord blood of their newborns with different birth weight (BW) are shown in Table 20. The author concluded, that the placenta barrier between mothers and babies exist only in relation to cadmium transfer, independently of birth weight. 

Table 20. Cadmium in whole maternal blood and cord blood in the Silesia District (pg/l)...

For blood cleaned plastic collection tubes with stoppers and for urine high-density polyethene containers thoroughly cleaned with Suprapur (Merck, Germany) quality nitric acid and bidistilled water 1 + 10 must be used. The whole set (tube and stopper, or container) must be tested to deliver less than 10% extraneous amounts of cadmium. Colored stoppers and plastics with a Cd softener should not be used. Before starting the study six test tubes per tube production lot and during the study frequently blank tubes, e.g., for 1% of the total number of samples to study, must be tested. The test may be performed with a 1% v/v solution of nitric acid (e.g., Suprapur quality) in bidistilled water. Preferably vacuum collection tubes must be used. No special type of needle is requested. Needles of stainless steel are adequate. Other needles, e.g., siliconized or... 

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