The Beginnings

The starter motor was a high-speed d.c. motor with a speed reduction ratio of about 50 1 to the crankshaft of the combustion engine, and this is the method still used today. Given that the start routine is very short, both the battery and starter motor have, over the years, undergone a complete optimization to obtain the best possible torque for the lowest possible manufacturing costs. As a result, no other system has yet gained a foothold in series-manufactured vehicles. 

Development of vehicle electrical power systems and automotive batteries in 20th century 

Under low-temperature conditions, the battery will rarely achieve a full SoC. In fact, the specifications laid down in the various standards do not represent the duty the SLI battery has to serve in a modern automobile. For advanced vehicle electrical systems, which may be a motivation for new battery technologies like the VRLA, it is essential to know the expected operating condition in order to evaluate alternative energy-storage technologies. 

In the USA, following the policy of the SAE, it is not the 20-h rate capacity but, rather, the reserve capacity (RC) that is used to characterize battery size. The RC is the capacity that can be discharged at a current of 25 A, i.e., it is not a specific characteristic. 

A similar policy applies for motorcycles and for trucks, with smaller and higher battery capacity, respectively. Specific cold-cranking capability is less an issue for both these types of vehicle. Motorcycles are seldom used under conditions of extreme cold, and truck batteries are, in many cases, so high in capacity that even the low-temperature performance is sufficient for engine cranking. 

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There can be an element of maintenance costs that is fixed and an element which is variable. Fixed maintenance costs cover routine maintenance such as regular maintenance on safety valves which must be carried out irrespective of the rate of production. There also can be an element of maintenance costs which is variable. This arises from the fact that certain items of equipment can need more maintenance as the production rate increases. Also, royalties which cover the cost of purchasing another company s process technology may have different bases. Royalties may be a variable cost, since they can sometimes be paid in proportion to the rate of production. Alternatively, the royalty might be a single-sum payment at the beginning of the project. In this case, the single-sum payment will become part of the project s capital investment. As such, it will be included in the annual capital repayment, and this becomes part of the fixed cost. 

The idea of clean motor and heating fuels, that is, those having an improved impact on the environment, has been developing since the beginning of the 1980s, first in the United States. It has since then appeared in Europe and will most certainly have its impact in the rest of the world beyond the year 2000. 

In Europe and elsewhere in the world, the trend towards reformulated gasoline has scarcely begun it is very likely, however, that it will be felt around the beginning of 2000, with more or less profound impact on the refining industry. 

At the beginning of each year, the new version of the SAE Handbook is published for which Volume 3 is entitled ... 

A group of eminent specialists was placed in charge of writing the series, with those involved being listed at the beginning of each relevant volume. We would like to thank all of them for their dynamic and even enthusiastic approach to this project. 

The input parameters to the calculation of volumetries were introduced at the beginning of Section 6.1. Let us take the STOMP calculation as an example. 

As discussed at the beginning of this section, the value of information from appraisal is the difference between the outcome of the decision with the information and the outcome of the decision without the information. 

Royalty is charged from the start of production, but tax is only payable once there is a positive taxable income. At the beginning of a new project the fiscal costs may exceed the revenues, giving rise to a negative taxable income. Whether the project can take advantage of this depends upon the fiscal status of the company and the project. 

This method attempts to relate the capital allowance to the total life of the assets (i.e. the field s economic lifetime) by linking the annual capital allowance to the fraction of the remaining reserves produced during the year. The capital allowance is calculated from the unrecovered assets at the end of the previous year times the ratio of the current year s production to the reserves at the beginning of the year. As long as the ultimate recovery of the field remains the same, the capital allowance per barrel of production is constant. However, this is rarely the case, making this method more complex in practice. 

The project cashflow discussed so far follows a pattern typical of E P projects a number of years of expenditure (giving rise to cash deficits) at the beginning of the project, followed by a series of cash surpluses. The annual cashflows need to be evaluated to incorporate the timing of the cash flows, to account for the effect of the time value of monef. The technique which allows the values of sums of money spent at different times to be consistently compared is called discounting. 

If the reference date is set at the beginning of the year (e.g. 1.1.98) then full year discount factors imply that t is a whole number and that cashflows occur in lump sums at the end of each year. If the cashflow occurs uniformly throughout the year and the reference date is the beginning of the year then mid-year discount factors are more appropriate, in which case the discounting equation would be ... 

The total undiscounted cash surplus (the ultimate cash surplus) is 190 m. The total discounted cash surplus ( 24.8 m) is called the net present value (NPV) of the project. Since in this example the discount rate applied is 20%, this figure would be the 20% NPV also annotated NPV(20). This is the present value at the beginning of Year 1 of the total project, assuming a 20% discount rate. 

Hydrocarbon-water contact movement in the reservoir may be determined from the open hole logs of new wells drilled after the beginning of production, or from a thermal decay time (TDT) log run in an existing cased production well. The TDT is able to differentiate between hydrocarbons and saline water by measuring the thermal decay time of neutrons pulsed into the formation from a source in the tool. By running the TDT tool in the same well at intervals of say one or two years (time lapse TDTs), the rate of movement of the hydrocarbon-water contact can be tracked. This is useful in determining the displacement in the reservoir, as well as the encroachment of an aquifer. 

Artificial lift techniques are discussed in Section 9.6. During production, the operating conditions of any artificial lift technique will be optimised with the objective of maximising production. For example, the optimum gas-liquid ratio will be applied for gas lifting, possibly using computer assisted operations (CAO) as discussed in Section 11.2. Artificial lift may not be installed from the beginning of a development, but at the point where the natural drive energy of the reservoir has reduced. The implementation of artificial lift will be justified, like any other incremental project, on the basis of a positive net present value (see Section 13.4). 

Thus, for years now wheels have been tested with eddy-currents with a special emphasis on finding superficial defects on the wheel s running surface. At the beginning, hand-guided probes were used which the tester slid across the surface that was to be tested. To do so, the wheel was placed on a turn table which the operator had to move manually. A higher test reliability in the transitional radius between the body and the bead wheel was achieved by using special form-fitted probes. Nonetheless, it was not possible to rule out completely that the wheel was not scanned 100 %. This test method did not allow for documentation and a subsequent reconstruction of the test. 

At the beginning of the supervision of films systems first of all the influences of the exposure-and processing installations of the project partners on the determination of the film system parameters shall be found out and subsequently the equipments for measurement shjdl be compared one with another. This round robin test comprises in detail ... 

We are sure that with this system we have developed a powerful tool to eliminate the shortcomings of manual inspection as discussed in the beginning of the article. We are also sure that this automatised test is not suitable in all applications. However, where there are many details to be tested and where these can be handled automatically, we think AMPl may be a competetive alternative which improves both the quality of inspection and the working environment. 

For many years, the technical capabilities of standard NDT methods did not allow for this approach. If NDT would have produced quantitative data on defect size from the beginning, it is highly probable that current acceptance criteria for weld defects would have used this information. Acceptance criteria would have been completely different from what they are... 

It was pointed out at the beginning of this section that ir could be viewed as arising from an osmotic pressure difference between a surface region comprising an adsorbed film and that of the pure solvent. It is instructive to develop... 

IHP) (the Helmholtz condenser formula is used in connection with it), located at the surface of the layer of Stem adsorbed ions, and an outer Helmholtz plane (OHP), located on the plane of centers of the next layer of ions marking the beginning of the diffuse layer. These planes, marked IHP and OHP in Fig. V-3 are merely planes of average electrical property the actual local potentials, if they could be measured, must vary wildly between locations where there is an adsorbed ion and places where only water resides on the surface. For liquid surfaces, discussed in Section V-7C, the interface will not be smooth due to thermal waves (Section IV-3). Sweeney and co-workers applied gradient theory (see Chapter III) to model the electric double layer and interfacial tension of a hydrocarbon-aqueous electrolyte interface [27]. 

The later time evolution is shown in Figrne A3.13.7 between 90 and 100 fs, and m Figrne A3.13.8, between 390 and 400 fs, after the beginning of the excitation (time step t j)- Tln-ee observations are readily made first,... 

Barrett A H 1983 The beginnings of moleoular radio astronomy Serendipitous Discoveries in Radio Astronomy ed K Kellerman and B Sheets (Green Bank, WV NRAO)... 

Therefore, the locus of the values ( ) with a vanishing second derivative of A delimits the region of the miscibility gap in which spinodal decomposition occurs. This locus is referred to as the spinodal (figure C2.1.10 (bl). The length scale of the concentration fluctuations at the beginning of the separation process is controlled by... 

The structure of W (Rl) discussed at the beginning of this section, will reflect itself in some interrelations between the P, y(qx) obtained by solving this equation. More importantly, this equation has a solution if and only if the elements of the mati ix satisfy the following curl-condition... 

As discussed in detail in [10], equivalent results are not obtained with these three unitary transformations. A principal difference between the U, V, and B results is the phase of the wave function after being h ansported around a closed loop C, centered on the z axis parallel to but not in the (x, y) plane. The pertm bative wave functions obtained from U(9, <])) or B(0, <()) are, as seen from Eq. (26a) or (26c), single-valued when transported around C that is ( 3 )(r Ro) 3< (r R )) = 1, where Ro = Rn denote the beginning and end of this loop. This is a necessary condition for Berry s geometric phase theorem [22] to hold. On the other hand, the perturbative wave functions obtained from V(0, <])) in Eq. (26b) are not single valued when transported around C. 

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