Subsidized financing

In the case of countries with public financing of pharmaceuticals, these two systems can in practice be veiy similar. This is so because at the moment of consumption users normally only pay a percentage of the price. Therefore, setting prices according to the average cost and subsidizing the consumer heavily may be equivalent to a two-tariff system, with a variable tariff equivalent to the percentage paid by the patient. 

The chemical industry is research intensive. It hires over 15% of all scientists and engineers in the U.S. The four industrial sectors spending the largest amounts on R D are aircraft and missiles, 25% electrical equipment, 17% chemicals and allied products, 11% and motor vehicles and related equipment, 11%. Of the total for chemicals about 10% of chemicals and allied products R D is federally financed, compared to 76% of aircraft and missiles R D and 44% of electrical and communications equipment R D. Thus chemical R D is heavily subsidized by industry. 

Rather than relying on a regular income tax to finance the provision of public goods, the Athenians counted on the rich to volunteer, by subsidizing and organizing public services or "liturgies." In Xenophon s Economics, Socrates recites a number of such services ... 

The investigator must remember that most clinical trial budgets derived in academic settings must conform to the Health Care Finance Administration s corporate compliance regulations. The regulations state that federal health care payers are responsible for covering only those resources that are medically necessary for the care of a patient. Taxpayer dollars (e.g.. Medicare) cannot be used to subsidize purely research activities, or for experimental or unproven medical therapies. 

The SCHC was financed largely from membership dues and apparently only a little from donations for instance the Spolek pro prumysl cukrovarnicky v Cechdch (Association for Sugar Industry in Bohemia) and K. Preis regularly subsidized the society s organ Listy Chemicke (Chemical Letters), while the state did not provide any assistance. Nevertheless, after some initial monetary difficulties, in the 1890s the economic situation of the SCHC improved, and it did not report financial problems, especially thanks to a substantial rise of the membership, which reached its peak - 448 members in 1896 then it could even afford a paid administrative secretary. 

Description Sugar, cooking oil, and low-grade flour are universally available at subsidized prices and in unlimited quantities. The subsidy can be characterized as a tax subsidy scheme in which taxes on particular commodities finance subsidies. Since July 1996, some aspects of the regulatory framework have been reformed. Currently local production and domestic markets are protected only via customs tariffs using a variable levy mechanism. 

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