Subject retrogradation

Retrogradation is another important property of starch. It is generally accepted that retrogradation is involved in the staling of baked products such as bread. In particular it appears that retrogradation is the recrystallisation of the amylopectin present. Notably, retrogradation is still a subject of research. The application of techniques such as 13C NMR allows insights that older techniques do not provide. 

Cakes are in principle subject to all the threats to a long shelf life that any other bakery product is subject to. The product can dry out, the starch can retrograde or mould can grow. These are in addition to the threats of oxidation, loss of flavour and lipolysis by any enzymes present. 

Sobin C, Sackeim HA, Prudic J, et al Predictors of retrograde amnesia following ECT. Am J Psychiatry 152 995-1001, 1995 Sogaard U, Michalow J, Butler B, et al A tolerance study of single and multiple dosing of the selective dopamine uptake inhibitor GBR 12909 in healthy subjects. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 5 237-251, 1990... 

Use of GHB can impair judgment and cause shortterm (retrograde) amnesia, increasing the possibility for risky behavior and sexual assault. It also impairs ability to drive, increasing the risk for a car accident. If use is long term, the abuser risks unknown health consequences and, if use is discontinued, the abuser is subject to potential withdrawal illness. 

Basically, harvest of invasive cells after any invasion assay (see Chapter 4) can be used to select a cell population with increased invasive ability. Poste et al. (1980) have used the chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) assay, a canine blood vessel perfusion-invasion chamber, or retrograde injection of tumor cells in the mouse bladder, to select tumor cell variants with respect to their invasive ability. B16-BL6 melanoma cells, widely used as a prototype of highly invasive metastatic cells have been subjected to six rounds of selection with the bladder system. The application of these three systems for selection is described in detail in the original paper (Poste et al., 1980), and will not be treated further here. 

There are several areas of interest in chemical processing that should be reviewed in this chapter. These areas include retrograde condensation, polymers, and electrolytes. In each case, the material is more extensive than can be covered in any detail in this chapter. Reference should be made to Prausnitz, Lichtenthaler, and Gomes de Acevedo. Furthermore, the principles covered in this chapter form the basis for viewing and calculating the phase equilibrium that applies. The subjects of polymers and electrolytes are so complex that they require a chapter by themselves. However, a brief statement follows describing retrograde condensation. 

Rich JB, Yaster M, Brandt J Anterograde and retrograde memory in children anesthetized with propofol. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 21 535-546, 1999 Schneider U, Bevalacqua C, Jacobs R, et al Effects of fentanyl and low doses of alcohol on neuropsychological performance in healthy subjects. Neuropsychobiology 39 38-43, 1999... 

Another system in the brain, the basal ganglia, has also been subject of particularly intense research. BDNF, NT-3 and NT-4/5, but not NGF, have shown clear effects on differentiation of both dopaminergic and GABAergic neurons of the ventral mesencephalon. Moreover, NT-3 has also been shown to promote the survival of both populations of neurons (Hyman et al., 1994, Studer et al., 1995). In addition, the presence of trkB and trkC receptors in the striatum, together with the existence of receptor-mediated retrograde transport of BDNF and NT-3 from the striatum to the substantia nigra in adult rat brain (Wiegand et al.,... 

The involvement of the proteasome suggests that the MHC class I heavy chains migrate back to the cytosol. Indeed, a cytosolic disposition of the deglycosylated intermediate can be confirmed by subcellular fractionation experiments. Furthermore, this intermediate can be immunoprecipitated from material reactive with anti-proteasome antibodies. Apparently, US2 and USll induce retrograde translocation, or dislocation , of MHC class I heavy chains from the ER to the cytosol, where the heavy chains are subjected to proteolytic degradation by the proteasome (Wiertz et al. 1996a,b). 

Elia J, Imbrogno N, Delfino M, Mazzilli F. Retrograde ejaculation and abnormal hormonal profile in a subject under treatment with valproate and phenytoin. Arch Ital Urol Androl 2010 82(4) 193-4. 

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