Stokes, Donald

Stokes, Donald E. Pasteur s Quadrant Basic Science and Technological Innovation. Washington, D.C. Brookings Institution Press, 1997. Presents an extended argument that many fundamental scientific discoveries originate in application-driven research, and that the distinction between pure and applied science is not, of itself, very useful. 

Pasteur s Quadrant, Donald E. Stokes, Brookings Institution Press, Washington, D.C., 1997. 

In Chapter 1, we discussed historic product innovations, both motivated by external market-pull and by internal technology-push motivations. Figure 12.1 shows a quadrant that was popularized by the Boston Consulting Group as the stars and dogs chart, and later popularized by Donald Stokes as Pasteur s quadrant. The horizontal axis shows the strength of external market-pull, and the vertical axis shows the level of... 

Wet samples can be analyzed without a previous preparation by the so-called environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM). In this technique, instead of the vacuum conditions, the sample chamber is kept in a modest gas pressure (Bache and Donald, 1998). The upper part of the column (illumination source) is kept in high vacuum conditions. A system of differential pumps allows to create a pressure gradient through the column (Bache and Donald, 1998 Stokes and Donald, 2000). The choice of the gas depends on the kind of food hydrated food is kept under water vapor. 

Stokes, D.J. and Donald, M. 2000. In situ mechanical testing of dry and hydrated breadcrumb in the environmental scanning electron microscope (ESEM). J. Mater. Sci. 35, 599-607. 

Materials science associated with fracture mechanics has mainly been confined to composite materials such as concrete, ceramics and metals. Much of the emphasis of the research has been on preventing fatigue and failure rather than designing for it to occur. The way a structure deforms and breaks under stress is crucial for properties such as flow and fracture behaviour, sensory perception of structure, water release and the mobility and release of active compounds. In the case of foods, the ability to break down and interact with the mouth surfaces provides texture and taste attributes. The crack propagation in a complex supramolecular structure is highly dependent on the continuous matrix, interfacial properties and defects and the heterogeneity of the structure. Previous structure-fracture work has dealt with cellular plant foods, and it has been demonstrated that the fracture path differs between fresh and boiled carrots due to cellular adhesion and cell wall strength as well as cell wall porosity and fluid transport (Thiel and Donald 1998 Stoke and Donald 2000 Lillford 2000). 

Stokely J.A. and C.H. Me Donald.1972. Hotrubber asphalt seal coats to cure cracking streets. Pub. Works. 103 46-8. 

Pasteur s scientific achievement illustrates the close interplay of fundamental and applied advances that occur in many scientific fields. Political scientist Donald Stokes has termed this arena of application-driven scientific research as Pasteur s quadrant, to distinguish it from purely curiosity-driven research (as in modern particle physics), advance by trial and error (for example, Edison s early work on the electric light), and the simple cataloging of properties and behaviors (as in classical botany and zoology). The study of applied science is a detailed examination of Pasteur s quadrant. 

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