Source of astaxanthin

Lorenz, R.T. and Cysewski, G.R., Commercial potential for Haematococcus microal-gae as a natural source of astaxanthin, Trends Biotechnol, 18, 160, 2000. 

R. T. Lorenz and G. R. Cysewski, Commercial potential for Haematococcus microalgae as a natural source of astaxanthin, TIBTECH, 18 (2000), 160-167. 

Because astaxanthin has not typically been identified as a major carotenoid in human seram, information on its epidemiology in human health is lacking. Salmon, the principal dietary source of astaxanthin, is an important component of the traditional diets of Eskimos and certain coastal tribes in North America these groups have shown unusually low prevalence of cancer. This low cancer incidence has been attributed to the high levels in salmon of certain fatty acids, notably eicosapentenoic acid (EPA), yet it is possible that astaxanthin has played a role in cancer chemoprevention among these peoples as well. Regardless, the existing data on the potential for astaxanthin to directly prevent cancer is limited to in vitro cell culture studies and in vivo studies with rodent models. 

Astaxanthin is not known to present any special health risk to humans. Astaxanthin is a natural, albeit minor, component of the human diet through consumption of salmon, trout, and various cmstaceans, and it has been used as a dietary supplement at least since 1999 20 common source of astaxanthin used in these supplements is an extract... 

Dominguez-Bocanegra, A.R., and Torres-Munoz, J.A. 2004. Astaxanthin hyperproduction by Phaffia rhodozyma (now Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous) with raw coconut milk as sole source of energy. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 66 249-252. 

Dore, J.E. and Cy sewski, G.R., Haematococcus algae meal a source of natural astaxanthin for aqua feeds. Aqua Feed Int, 6, 22, 2003. 

H.p.l.c. separation of the (—)-camphanic diesters of astaxanthin [3,3 -dihy-droxy-jS,/8-carotene-4,4 -dione (11)] from lobster eggs (Homarus gammarus) showed that all three isomers, (3/2,3 /2), (35,3 5), and (3/2,3 5), were present. This is the first identification of a carotenoid in a natural source." Details of the previously reported" determination of the chirality of peridinin [(35,5/2,6/2,3 5,5 /2,6 5)-5, 6 -epoxy-3,5,3 -trihydroxy-6,7-didehydro-5,6,5, 6 -tetrahydro-10,ll,20-trinor-/8,/8-caroten-19,ll -olide 3-acetate (17)] and dinoxanthin [(35,5/2,6/2,3 5,5 /2,6 5)-5, 6 -epoxy-6,7-didehydro-5,6,5, 6 -tetrahydro-/3,/5-carotene-3,5,3 -triol 3-acetate (12)] have been given."" Sul-catoxanthin from Anemonia sulcata has been shown to be identical to peridinin." ... 

The orange resupinate carpophores of the Basidiomycete Penio-phora aurantiaca are one of the few known sources of ketocarotenoids. The main pigment is astaxanthin (464), but echinenone (462) and asta-... 

In addition to applications as direct and indirect feeds mentioned above, the heterotrophic production of microalgae can potentially provide a cost-effective source of nutrient components, e.g. marine protein, PUFA or astaxanthin, that can be incorporated into formulated feeds for larval stages and beyond. Harel and Place (2004) provide more detail on the broad applications of heterotrophic production of marine algae for aquaculture. 

Carotenoids are tetraterpenes widely distributed in marine animals [159], algae, and dinoflagellates [160], The most common carotenoids found in marine animals are (3-carotene, astaxanthin (Fig. 5), and their derivatives [161]. However, they are not endogenously biosynthesized but are incorporated from dietary intake or from the coral-associated microbiota. Another source of carotenoids in animals is derived from symbiotic... 

---