Some example outputs

Example 1 Typical Outputs of Thermal Stability Test Methods As discussed in detail later in Section 2.3, various techniques with different working principles are available to identify the thermal reactivity hazards of individual substances and reaction mixtures. Some examples are presented here. 

Assume that a quantity of interest ( score ) can be written as a real-valued function P t) = F[p(f)] of the system state Q f) at a given time t. This might be, for example, a measure of performance of some input-output device that is supposed to operate within a predefined cycle/gafe time t. Depending on fhe physical problem and model chosen, exfensions and generalizations are conceivable, such as a comparison of the outcome for different t (on a timescale set by a constraint)... 

Some phosphors are self-generating and others are stimulable phosphors involving modulating transducers to delay the output. Some examples of lanthanides in luminescence transducers are fisted in Table 12.16. 

The function of the second component is also to adjust the oxygen balance that affects the energy output and reaction temperature. The oxygen balance is also adjusted by the addition of inorganic oxidizers such as nitrates, perchlorates, or sulfates. Some examples of double-base propellants are given in Table 12.5. 

Lithium carbonate can be used more directly as the auxiliary electrode with a lithium ion conductor, since the in situ formation of another carbonate phase is not required. Lithium ion conductors used with Li2CO3 include LISICON [163] and other Li3PO4-based electrolytes [164—173]. As with sodium ion conductors, Li2CO3-containing carbonates are used with lithium ion conductors [174, 175], The outputs of some examples of these lithium ion-conducting electrolyte-based sensors are shown in Figure 13.11 [163, 172-174]. 

WO3 has been used as an electrode for CO sensors [254—260]. Figure 13.21 [254—258] shows that the outputs of CO sensors with YSZ electrolytes and WO3 electrodes decrease with increasing temperature, which, as discussed earlier, is a general tendency for nonequilibrium sensors. Tungsten oxide has also been used as an electrode for NO sensors [246, 254—259, 261-263], some examples of which are shown in Figure 13.22 [254—259, 262, 263[. 

Two-phase mixtures of oxides have also been used in mixed potential sensors. Such examples include Cr2O3 + NiO [297] for NO sensors, CuO + ZnO [298, 299] or SnO2 + CdO [300] for CO sensors, and In2O3 + MnO2 [301, 302] for hydrocarbon sensors. Some examples ofthe outputs of NO -and CO sensors with two-phase oxide mixtures as electrodes are shown in Figure 13.24 [270, 297, 298, 300]. 

On this basis, a cost or value of the available energy flows at the various junctures within the system can be determined (iteratively). Then if, for example, a particular component needs to deliver some specified output, knowing the unit cost of the availability supplied to the component, the component and its operating conditions can be selected (or designed) so that the total costs—of availability supplied thereto and of capital costs thereof, (etc.)—can be minimized. Typical parameters (decision variables) of a component which can be adjusted in order to attain the optimum system are efficiency, operating pressure and temperature, speed, and so on and so forth. 

Some examples of static output signals are shown in Figure 3.6 a besides an ideal linear (proportional) behavior, real sensors often show inverse-proportional, exponential, parabolic, higher-order polynomial, or much more complicated dependencies. For reasons of simplicity, our considerations below refer to linear behavior. 

In order for a model to be identifiable, all compartments must be input and output reachable. An input reachable compartment has at least one path leading from some input. Output reachable refers to all compartments must somehow be connected to an observed compartment. Figure 1.14 presents an example of a model with input and output reachability problems and is therefore unidentifiability. Compartment 2 in Model A shown in Fig. 1.13 is output unreachable and therefore unidentifiable. Input and output reachability are necessary conditions for identifiability but are not sufficient. A model that is input and output reachable may still not be identifiable (see Model B in Fig. 1.13). If... 

The Active single processes resulting from the allocation process should add up to the original multiple process if their respective inputs and outputs are added together. Some examples of multiple processes are ... 

Given the number of variables needed for accurate low demand probability of failure on demand calculations, a number of engineering tools have been developed. The tools use different methods of calculation and often consider different input variables so care must be taken in the selection of a tool. Some tools are approved by third parties like TUV. Most tools win calculate PFDavg and check the architecture limits based on the SFF. Most will also calculate MTTFS (Mean Time to Fail Spurious). An example output from the SILver tool from Exida is shown in Figure 7-11. 

The next category of process outputs are controlled variables specifying operating conditions. Some examples of these are temperatures, pressures, and flow rates, associated with the process. These variables are most often measurable, and are closed-loop controlled. 

The analysis is started by simply joining the pre-calculated scores with the number of screens in which a compound has participated and the count how often it was a primary hit. An example output with some public domain structures is show in Table 13.2. For each compound, it is reported how often the compound was in a primary screen campaign, how often it was found as a hit, and in how many different assay technologies and different target types it was found as a hit. The hit set-based analysis is done in order to gain a quick overview on potential cross reactivity issues. The results can be delivered as a table or a graph. An example is shown in Figure 13.5. 

As shown in Fig. 3.8, sensitivity of AE sensor is often expressed in voltage output per vertical velocity (lV/(m/s)). In another way, the face-to-face technique has been conventionally applied to estimate the sensitivity based on voltage output per unit pressure input (IV/mbar). The broadband sensor is employed as a reference. Some examples are given in Fig. 3.12. 

Figure 15.6 Example output of the process mass intensity and life cycle assessment tool developed by the American Chemical Society Green Chemistry Institute Pharmaceutical Roundtable. The data presented in the columns provide the metrics for steps 1,2, 3, and the total of the synthesis. Some of the instructions in the tool are included as an illustration.

A continuous process is one in which the input and output streams operate uninterrupted. The product is continuously generated. Some examples are tomato concentration (food process), oil refinery (chemical process), and the brewing of beer (bioprocess). 

Typically, multiplicity of steady states is accompanied by hysteresis, a term derived from the Greek word meaning lagging behind. A characteristic mark of hysteresis is that the output— here the reaction rate—forms a loop, which can be oriented clockwise or counterclockwise. Hysteresis causes the reaction rate to jump up or fall down, signifying, respectively, ignition and extinction of the reaction. Fig. 7.5 shows some examples of kinetic dependences involving hysteresis. 

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