Chemical Solutions

Buhro W E, Hickman K M and Trentler T J 1996 Turning down the heat on semiconductor growth—solution chemical syntheses and the solution-liquid-solid mechanism Adv. Mater. 8 685... 

Pangali C, M Rao and B J Berne 1978. On a Novel Monte Carlo Scheme for Simulating Water ar Aqueous Solutions. Chemical Physics Letters 55 413M17. 

Since the early 1940s, insecticides have been of immeasurable value in curbing the ravages of insect pests. In the words of the National Academy of Sciences "...when their use is approached from sound ecological principles, chemical pesticides provide dependable and valuable tools for the biologist. Their use is indispensable in modem society. There are many problems of insect pest control for which the use of chemicals provides the only acceptable solution. Chemical pesticides will continue to be one of the most dependable weapons for the entomologist for the foreseeable future" (6). 

A reverse osmosis membrane acts as the semipermeable barrier to flow ia the RO process, aHowiag selective passage of a particular species, usually water, while partially or completely retaining other species, ie, solutes such as salts. Chemical potential gradients across the membrane provide the driving forces for solute and solvent transport across the membrane. The solute chemical potential gradient, —is usually expressed ia terms of concentration the water (solvent) chemical potential gradient, —Afi, is usually expressed ia terms of pressure difference across the membrane. 

When it was recognized (31) that the SD model does not explain the negative solute rejections found for some organics, the extended solution—diffusion model was formulated. The SD model does not take into account possible pressure dependence of the solute chemical potential which, although negligible for inorganic salt solutions, can be important for organic solutes (28,29). 

Alkali sihcates are used as components, rather than reactants, in many appHcations. In many cases they only contribute partially to overall performance. Utility factors are generally not as easy to identify. Their benefit usually depends on the surface and solution chemical properties of the wide range of highly hydrophilic polymeric siUcate ions deUverable from soluble sihcate products or their proprietary modifications. In most cases, however, one or two of the many possible induences of these complex anions cleady express themselves in final product performance at a level sufficient to justify their use (102). Estimates of the 1995 U.S. consumption of sodium sihcates are shown in Table 6. 

Precipitatioa (2,13—17) techniques employ a combination of nucleation and growth iaduced by adding a chemical precipitant, or by changing the temperature and/or pressure of the solution. Chemical homogeneity is controlled by controlling the rate of precipitation. FFeterogeneous precipitation iavolves the precipitation of a soHd of different composition from the solution, and the composition of the precipitate may change as precipitation continues. Coprecipitation iavolves the simultaneous precipitation of similar size cations ia a salt as a soHd solutioa. 

T. Irvine, ChemicalMnalysis of Electroplating Solutions, Chemical Pubhshing Co., New York, 1970. 

Chemical Designations — Synonyms Diacetyl Peroxide Solution Chemical Formula CH3CO(Oi)OCCH3 in dimethyl phthalate. 

Chemical Designations - Synonyms Copper Borofluride Solution Copper (II) Fluoborate Solution Cupric Fluoborate Solution Chemical Formula Cu(BF4)2-HjO. 

Chemical Designations - Synonyms Corn Sugar Solution Glucose Solution Grape Sugar Solution Chemical Formula C HuO —HjO. 

Chemical Designations - 1,5-Pentanedial solution Chemical Formula OHC-(CH2)j-CHO... 

Chemical Designations - Synonyms Cetyl sodium sulfate Sodium cetyl sulfate solution Chemical Formula CH3(CH2),4CHj0S03Na-H20. 

Chemical Designations - Synonyms Cetyltrimethylammonium chloride solution Chemical Formula CisH33(CH3)3NCl-HjO-(CH3)aCHOH. 

Chemical Designations - Synonyms Lead fluoroborate Lead fluoroborate solution Chemical Formula Pb(BF4)j-H,0. 

Chemical Designations - Synonyms Dioxonium perchlorate solution Perchloric acid solution Chemical Formula HCIO4-H2O. 

Chonical Designations - Synonyms Zinc fluoborate solution Chemical Formula Zn(Sp4)2-I O. Observable Characteristics - Physical State (as normally shipped) Liquid Color Colorless Odor None. 

Chemical DesignationsZirconium acetate solution Chemical Formula ... 

Chemisorption An adsorption process in which the solute chemically reacts with the adsorbent to form a new compound. 

Hounslow, M.J., Mumtaz, H.S., Collier, A.P., Barrick, J.P. and Bramley, A.S., 2001. A micro-mechanical model for the rate of aggregation during precipitation from solution. Chemical Engineering Science, 56, 2543-2552. 

Hurley, M.A., Jones, A.G. and Drummond, J.N., 1995. Crystallization kinetics of cyanazine precipitated from aqueous ethanol solutions. Chemical Engineering Research and Design, 73B, 52-57. 

Jones, A.G. and Mullin, J.W., 1974. Programmed cooling crystallization of potassium sulphate solutions. Chemical Engineering Science, 29, 105-118. 

Many books on chemical kinetics have been published, but few of these are devoted solely or even primarily to solution phase chemical kinetics. Textbooks of physical organic chemistry must deal with solution chemistry, but kinetics is only one part of their subject. From my teaching experience I have concluded that there is no current text that meets the needs, as I interpret them, of the student and practitioner of solution chemical kinetics. 

The last definition has widespread use in the volumetric analysis of solutions. If a fixed amount of reagent is present in a solution, it can be diluted to any desired normality by application of the general dilution formula V,N, = V N. Here, subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the initial solution and the final (diluted) solution, respectively V denotes the solution volume (in milliliters) and N the solution normality. The product VjN, expresses the amount of the reagent in gram-milliequivalents present in a volume V, ml of a solution of normality N,. Numerically, it represents the volume of a one normal (IN) solution chemically equivalent to the original solution of volume V, and of normality N,. The same equation V N, = V N is also applicable in a different context, in problems involving acid-base neutralization, oxidation-reduction, precipitation, or other types of titration reactions. The justification for this formula relies on the fact that substances always react in titrations, in chemically equivalent amounts. 

T. D. B. Morgan and D. L. H. Williams, work to be published reported in The Mechanisms of Reactions in Solution, Chemical Society Conference at the University of Kent at Canterbury, July 1970. 

We illustrate this approach using the equilibrium shown in Figure 16-10. When solid LiF is added to water, a small amount of the salt dissolves, leading to equilibrium between the solid and a solution. Chemical analysis reveals that the equilibrium concentration of F ions in the solution is 6.16 X 10 M. We want to determine the equilibrium constant for this process. 

K. W. Sykes, in Kinetics and Mechanism of Inorganic Reactions in Solution, Chemical Society, London, 1954, p. 64. 

Bollinger, J. C., Faure, R., Yvernault, T. Stahl, D. (1987). On the existence of the protonated dication in sulfolane solution. Chemical Physics Letters,... 

Marcus, Y. (1988). Ionic radii in aqueous solution. Chemical Reviews, 88, 1475-98. 

Neilson, G. W., Schioberg, D. Luck, W. A. P. (1985). The structure around the perchlorate ion in concentrated aqueous solutions. Chemical Physics Letters, 122, 475-9. 

Visser, A.E., Swatloski, R.P., Reichert, W.M. et al. (2001) Task-Specific Ionic Liquids for the Extraction of Metal Ions from Aqueous Solutions. Chemical Communications, 1, 135-136. 

Rather than measuring rhizodeposition in nutrient. solutions chemically, another approach has been to expose shoots to COi for a short period of time and to follow the spread of the through the plant, into the roots, and then into the nutrient solution. Kinetics of carbon flow and quantification of rhizodeposition can then be obtained (e.g.. Ref. 24). Advantages and limitations of this approach are discussed more fully in Sec. II.C. 

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