Social Ties

In a situation familiar to students of social stratification, high elites in science are maintained by selective processes of recruitment, socialization and allocation of resources. Thus it is not surprising to find ACS presidents linked by social ties similar to those found among other groups in the aristocracy of American science, such as members of the National Academy of Sciences or Nobel laureates. This section will explore the importance 

Beardsley, 1964, 43-69, surveys occupational opportunities for chemists in late-nineteenth century America. On Chandler, see III, Bogert, 1931 III, Billinger, 1939 III, Larson, 1950 and III, Rossiter, 1977. Chandler was the most adept practitioner of cumul in his generation of chemists, but similar examples are provided by the careers of other ACS presidents, such as J. L. Smith (1877), T. S. Hunt (1879, 1888), F. A. Genth (1880), or J. C. Booth (1883-1885). 

34 Recent studies on social stratification and elites in science include III, Cole and Cole, 1973 III, Mulkay, 1976 III, Zuckerman, 1970, esp. 243-245 and III, Zuckerman, 1977. 

Volwiler (1950) Marvel (1945) Elder (1960) Rassv/eiler (1958) Brode(1969) 

Parr (1928), W. A. Noyes (1920), Roger Adams (1935), Edward Bartow (1936), Carl S. Marvel (1945), B. S. Friedman (1974), and Charles C. Price (1965). And we may note that Joel Hildebrand (1955), Melvin Calvin (1971) and Glenn T. Seaborg (1976) had been colleagues at the Berkeley campus of the University of California since the late 1930s. 

---

The arm s length approach as a result of lack of funding associated with ethical trade, there is only limited use of third-party auditors. However, the partial use of independent auditors does occur mainly within the context of arm s length relationships between retailers, auditors and suppliers. This can be defined as the contractual relations between companies involving competitive bidding and playing-off of suppliers. Weak social ties and detached social relations are characteristic of such relationships (Doel, 1996, 1999). 

Psychosocial effects, believed to be unrelated to radiation exposure, resulted from the lack of information immediately after the accident, the stress and trauma of compulsory relocation to less contaminated areas, the breaking of social ties, and the fear that radiation exposure could cause health damage in the future. 

The concentration of population in planned settlements may not create what state planners had in mind, but it has almost always disrupted or destroyed prior communities whose cohesion derived mostly from nonstate sources. The communities thus superseded—however objectionable they may have been on normative grounds—were likely to have had their own unique histories, social ties, mythology, and capacity for joint action. Virtually by definition, the state-designated settlement must start from the beginning to build its own sources of cohesion and joint action. A new community is thus, also by definition, a community demobilized, and hence a community more amenable to control from above and outside. ... 

There are examples of societies whose violence is based on social ties and others where violent warfare is seen as a stabilizing force on the community. Even apparently peaceful groups such as the Buid or Inuit Eskimos experience some levels of violence in their close communities. 

Workplace Social Inclusion. . . captures the extent to which employees have informal social ties with others at work and feel as if they belong and are socially included by others in their workplace. ... 

The ability of putting themselves in the place of customers is also fostered, when employees form close social ties with customers, i.e. in communities. During these... 

Mere social ties to users do not have a direct effect on any of the market directed dispositions. They do, however, have an indirect effect via cognitive empathy. Direct use experience, has a positive effect on customer orientation and domain-specific innovativeness. Finally, lead usemess has a positive effect on customer orientation (significant at the 10% level of significance], domain-specific Innovativeness, and opinion leadership. Figure 14 illustrates the different antecedents and their contributions to the respective market-directed dispositions measured in effect sizes. 1 find only small (r<0,3) and mostly insignificant correlations between the independent variables, which lends support to an interpretation that the constructs are regarded as independent from each other. Due to the small sample size, the statistical power was not sufficient to explore this issue fully further research should answer the question to what extent these dimensions of use intensity are related, overlapping, or complementary. 

The findings suggest that different kinds of use intensity of employees foster different market-directed dispositions. This calls for a differentiated deployment of each user employee s capabilities In the firm. With respect to communication and orientation with ordinary customers, experienced user employees are of most value for the firm. With respect to shaping opinions and Influencing other customers, embedded lead users are especially Important Employees, who combine lead usemess, use experience, and social ties to other users, will be the most valuable persons with respect to the effect th have on customers and markets. Further research should focus on how to identify these persons. 

Next to the personal confrontation through product use, embedded lead users are also closer to users and have social ties towards them. They communicate about problems, which delivers to idea generation and innovation. Tietz et al. (2005) find that kitesurfing users who are often consulted with problems by other users are more likely to have ideas for innovations. With respect to firm employees in general, the existence of external social networks has been shown to be an enabler to innovative work behavior (Staber 2004). Kanter (2000) and Van de Ven (1986) suggest that closeness to need sources is relevant to the activation of innovation. This exposure to other need sources (users) is more salient with embedded lead users than with ordinary employees. 

The size of a work group may be determined by the tasks to be undertaken but other factors can be its role in the formal organisation, the social atmosphere and the geographical spread of the work. Work groups may extend their activities to beyond the work place when there are strong social ties and common social interests between the members. 

In 2001, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services released the surgeon general s report on youth violence, which indicated several risk factors (both personal and social) that predict youth violence. In the primary grades, risk factors included 1) being male 2) substance abuse 3) aggression 4) low intelligence 5) antisocial parents 6) poverty 7) psychological conditions such as hyperactivity 8) weak social ties 9) antisocial behaviors, attitudes, beliefs, and peers 10) exposure to TV violence 11) poor school performance 12) abusive parents ... 

Since the first World War, an elite gerontocracy has presided over American chemistry. Academic chemists have exerted disproportionate control over the governance of the ACS. Routes of entry to ACS leadership have been extremely limited. Intricate networks of social ties have linked members of the ACS presidential elite. 

---