Shell fragmentation measurement

Shell Fragmentation. See subjects from Fragmentation thru Fragment Velocity Measurements in Vol 6, F180-L to F182-L... 

Fragment Velocity Measurement of statically detonated projectiles provides data for analysis of the effectiveness of projectile fillers and shell design. Evaluation of the lethality of fragments also depends upon the deta of fragment velocity... 

Sand Test or Sand Crushing Test(Sandprobe, in Ger) (Essai au sable, in Fr) (Pxueba de la arena, in Span). This test, devised by w .G.Snciiing in 1910 and studied extensively by C.G.Storm w. C.Cope(Rcf 1), is considered to measure the shatteringfdisruptive) power of an expl, called brisance. This characteristic is important because it determines the effectiveness with which an expl can fragment a shell, bomb casing, grenade or warhead of a rocket... 

In this section we discuss the more important experimental results for continuum oscillator strengths measured by electron spectroscopy that have been reported up to mid 1978. The discussion is divided on the basis of target species rather than the type of experiment since this stresses the interrelation and complementary nature of many of the experiments. As the experimental work is far from complete in many cases, only a limited picture of the overall breakdown processes is available at present. In particular, a very limited amount of work has been reported for inner shells. More data are generally available for mass fragmentation (photoionization mass spectrometry) than for partial ionization cross sections (photoelectron spectroscopy). 

The brisance of Tritonal is 100% of that of TNT, as judged by sand test values, but plate dent tests indicate it to be only 93% and fragmentation tests of shell charges show it to be but 91% as brisant as TNT. The rate of detonation of cast Tritonal is approx 97% that of cast TNT. The heat of expln of Tritonal is 60% greater than that of TNT, but Tritonal is only 124% as powerful, as measured by the ballistic pendulum test. When tested for blast effect, Tritonal has relative peak pressure and positive impulse values of 113 and 118%, respectively, of those for TNT... 

Ionization potentials have also been used to study the heats of formation of odd-electron ions (open-shell systems). The loss of carbon monoxide from benzopyrone (2, equation 10) has been studied in relation to the fragment ion, C HeO, for which the geometry of molecules (3) and (4) was considered (Occolowitz and White, 1968). The excess energy term in reaction (10) was measured from the width of the peak corresponding... 

Thus, explosives like TNT are casually referred to as more powerful, although that is an imprecise term. In truth, explosives cannot be measured by a single factor. Detonation velocity is the speed of the reaction. Brisance is the ability to fragment (i.e., the shell casing) it is a combination of density, heat, detonation rate, and gas volume released. 

Abstract This chapter first gives a survey on the history of the discovery of nuclear fission. It briefly presents the liquid-drop and shell models and their application to the fission process. The most important quantities accessible to experimental determination such as mass yields, nuclear charge distribution, prompt neutron emission, kinetic energy distribution, ternary fragment yields, angular distributions, and properties of fission isomers are presented as well as the instrumentation and techniques used for their measurement. The contribution concentrates on the fundamental aspects of nuclear fission. The practical aspects of nuclear fission are discussed in O Chap. 57 of Vol. 6. 

In the same year, our group in Lausanne published first results from a similar instrument which was equipped with an electrospray ion source for producing closed-shell biomolecular ions, the first demonstrations of which were the measurement of the UV spectra of cold, protmiated aromatic amino acids, tryptophan [46], tyrosine [46, 122], and phenylalanine [122]. Spectroscopic detection is achieved by measuring the small percentage of parent ions that fragment subsequent to UV absorption. The internal temperature of the ions was estimated to be 11-16 K from an analysis of the intensity of hot band transitions of low frequency vibrational modes. If the temperatures achieved in buffer-gas cooled ion traps are low enough and the spectra sufficiently simple, one can often resolve UV absorption spectra for different stable cOTiformers of the molecule [122]. In this case, one can use the IR-UV double resonance techniques so profitably employed in supersonic molecular beam studies [91,123-128] to measure conformer-specific infrared spectra, and this was applied by Steams et al. to both individual amino acids [129] as well as peptides with up to 12 amino acid residues [130]. Subsequent improvements to the Lausanne machine (Fig. 7) included the addition of an ion funnel to... 

Material Brisance measured by- Fragmentation of shell percent TNT Copper cylinder compression test Rate of detonation Ballistic pendulum test percent TNT Trauzl lead block test percent TNT Relative blast effect, percent TNT ... 

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