Reflectance percent

Angle of incidence Percent reflected Percent absorbed... 

In 1963 a classification of coals by rank (differing from the ECE scheme) was pubUshed by the International Committee for Coal Petrology (Table 2) (9). This includes a classification of brown coal that correlates a number of important properties including the percent reflectance of vitrinite in the coal. This is a simpler version of that used in German practice, which further subdivides soft brown coals into foHaceous and earthy. Most brown coals belong to the latter group. 

Within the VGO saturates, distribution of paraffins, isoparaffins, and naphthenes is highly dependent on the petroleum source. The naphthenes account for roughly 60% of the saturates in a normal cmde oil. However, samples can be found having paraffins from <20 to >80%. In most samples, the / -paraffins from C2Q—are still present in sufficient quantity to be detected as distinct peaks in gc analyses. Some cmde oils show a nearly symmetric pattern of peaks such that each carbon number is present in regular progression up to a maximum around C -j. Other cmde oils show a similar distribution, but have preference for odd-numbered alkanes. Both the distribution and the selectivity toward odd-numbered hydrocarbons are considered to reflect differences in petrogenesis of the cmde oils. Although / -paraffins are distinct in the gc, these usually account for only a few percent of the saturates measured by gc. 

Wall Geometries. Rougher-than-rough waU geometries can reduce transmission probabUities in Knudsen flow by as much as 25% compared to the so-caUed rough-waU cosine reflection (34,35). For this and other reasons, conductance calculations that claim accuracy beyond a few percent may not be realistic. 

Percent Crystallinity. For samples that consist of a mixture of crystalline and amorphous material, it is possible to determine the percent of crystallinity by measuring the integrated intensity of sharp Bragg reflections and the integrated intensity of the very broad regions due to the amorphous scattering. 

The hot mixes are designed by using a standard laboratory compaction procedure to develop a composition reflecting estabUshed criteria for volume percent air voids, total volume percent voids between aggregate particles, flow and stabdity, or compressive strength. Tests such as the Marshall, Unconfined Compression, Hubbard-Field, Triaxial Procedure, or the Hveem stabdometer method are used (109). 

Fig. 2. Relation of vittinite reflectance (R in percent to maximum temperature and effective heating time (/ ) where = activation energy in kj...

Many more correlations are available for diffusion coefficients in the liquid phase than for the gas phase. Most, however, are restiicied to binary diffusion at infinite dilution D°s of lo self-diffusivity D -. This reflects the much greater complexity of liquids on a molecular level. For example, gas-phase diffusion exhibits neghgible composition effects and deviations from thermodynamic ideahty. Conversely, liquid-phase diffusion almost always involves volumetiic and thermodynamic effects due to composition variations. For concentrations greater than a few mole percent of A and B, corrections are needed to obtain the true diffusivity. Furthermore, there are many conditions that do not fit any of the correlations presented here. Thus, careful consideration is needed to produce a reasonable estimate. Again, if diffusivity data are available at the conditions of interest, then they are strongly preferred over the predictions of any correlations. 

Percent of Incident Radiation Reflected by a Water Surface (Albedo of Water)"... 

For erosive wear. Rockwell or Brinell hardness is likely to show an inverse relation with carbon and low alloy steels. If they contain over about 0.55 percent carbon, they can be hardened to a high level. However, at the same or even at lower hardness, certain martensitic cast irons (HC 250 and Ni-Hard) can out perform carbon and low alloy steel considerably. For simplification, each of these alloys can be considered a mixture of hard carbide and hardened steel. The usual hardness tests tend to reflect chiefly the steel portion, indicating perhaps from 500 to 650 BHN. Even the Rockwell diamond cone indenter is too large to measure the hardness of the carbides a sharp diamond point with a light load must be used. The Vickers diamond pyramid indenter provides this, giving values around 1,100 for the iron carbide in Ni-Hard and 1,700 for the chromium carbide in HC 250. (These numbers have the same mathematical basis as the more common Brinell hardness numbers.) The microscopically revealed differences in carbide hardness accounts for the superior erosion resistance of these cast irons versus the hardened steels. 

Reflected Electron Energy-Loss Spectroscopy (REELS) has elemental sensitivities on the order of a few tenths of a percent, phase discrimination at the few-percent level, operator controllable depth resolution from several nm to 0.07 nm, and a lateral resolution as low as 100 nm. 

Support resources more often than not directly reflect level of effort. Sometimes these can be expressed as a percentage (15 to 20 percent) of the cost of staff. 

Where docs this supply of energy come from Most life on Earth depends on radiant energy from the Sun, which delivers about 13 x 10 calories to Earth each year. Living organisms take up less than 1 percent of this energy Earth absorbs or reflects most of the rest. Absorbed energy is converted to heat, while energy is... 

The word laser is an acronym for light amplification by the stimulated emission of radiation. Lasers of all kinds consist of several basic components an active medium, an outside energy source, and an optical cavity with carefully designed mirrors on both ends. One of the mirrors is 100 percent reflective... 

The amount of solar radiation that reaches any point on the ground is extremely variable. As it passes through the atmosphere, 25 to 50 percent of the incident energy is lost due to reflection, scattering nr absorption. Even on a cloud-free day about 30 percent is lost, and only 70 percent of 1,367 W/nf, or 960 W/m, is available at the earth s surface. One must also take into account the earth s rotation and the resultant day-night (diurnal) cycle. If the sun shines 50 percent of the time (twelve hours per day, every day) on a one square meter surface, that surface receives no more than (960 W/m ) X (12 hours/day) X (365 days/year) =... 

Paton [15] reports total model costs of 0.4 to 1.0 percent of erected plant costs for a 1 million plant. These are actual costs and do not reflect profits. Material costs are less than 10 percent of total model costs, and usually less than 5 percent. For a. 30 million plant model costs run as low as 0.1 percent. These are for models which include plant layout, piping layout, and piping details. If simpler models are used the costs should be less. 

For the alloys containing less than 70 atomic percent thallium the powder photographs showed the reflection 620. For the other alloys in the A1 phase the photographs contained reflections only as far as 600 and 442. The presence of the reflection 620 at Bragg angles varying from 80-7 to 85-5° significantly improves the... 

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