Redox flow batteries, carbons

Melke, J., Jakes, P, Langner, J., Riekehr, L., Kunz, U, Zhao-Karger, Z., Nefedov, A., Sezen, H., Woll, C., Ehrenberg, H., and Roth, C. (2014) Carbon materials for the positive electrode in all-vanadium redox flow batteries. Carbon, 78, 220- 230. 

Rui X, Parasuraman A, Liu W et al (2013) Functionalized single-walled carbon nanotubes with enhanced electrocatalytic activity for redox reactions in vanadium bromide redox flow batteries. Carbon 64 464-471. doi 10.1016/j.carbon.2013.07.099... 

W.Y. Li, J.G. Liu and C.W. Yan, Multi-walled carbon nanotubes used as an electrode reaction catalyst for VO /V02 for a vanadium redox flow battery. Carbon 49,2011,3463-3470. 

Z. Gonzalez, C. Betas, P. Alvarez, S. Roldan, C. Blanco, R. Santamaria, M. Granda and R. Men ndez, Thermally reduced graphite oxide as positive electrode in vanadium redox flow batteries. Carbon 50, 2011,828-834. 

L. Yue, W. Li, E Sun, L. Zhao and L. Xing, Highly hydroxylated carbon fibres as electrode materials of all-vanadium redox flow battery. Carbon 48, 2010, 3079-3090. 

C. Flox, J. Rubio-Garcia, R. Nafria, R. Zamani, M. Skoumal, T. Andreu, J. Arbiol, A. Cabot and J.R. Morante, Active nano-CuPtj electrocatalyst supported on graphene for enhancing reactions at the cathode in all-vanadium redox flow batteries, Carbon 50,2012,2372-2374. 

In redox flow batteries such as Zn/Cl2 and Zn/Br2, carbon plays a major role in the positive electrode where reactions involving Cl2 and Br2 occur. In these types of batteries, graphite is used as the bipolar separator, and a thin layer of high-surface-area carbon serves as an electrocatalyst. Two potential problems with carbon in redox flow batteries are (i) slow oxidation of carbon and (ii) intercalation of halogen molecules, particularly Br2 in graphite electrodes. The reversible redox potentials for the Cl2 and Br2 reactions [Eq. (8) and... 

Another type of redox flow battery that utilizes carbon electrodes and soluble reactants involving vanadium compounds in H2S04 is under evaluation [38,39] ... 

Alkali battery, redox flow battery, fuel cell Humidity, carbon monoxide, etc. 

YOU 13] YOUSSRY M., MaDEC L., CerbELAUD M., et al, Non-aqueous carbon black suspensions for lithium-based redox flow batteries rheology and simultaneous rheo-electrical behavior . Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics, vol. 15, pp. 14476-14486, 2013. 

Each type of fuel cell tends to be specific to a given manufacturer and information on the construction is highly proprietary. Ogawa and Shimizaki [66] studied the effects of carbonization and surface treatment conditions on the performance of redox flow battery using PAN based carbon fibers. 

Depending on the final application of carbon materials, very different properties and structures on different length scales need to be analyzed in detail using the aforementioned methods and, most favorably, a combination of them. A systematic Raman, TEM, SEM, NEXAFS, and EPR study of various carbon materials for impregnation into carbon felts used as positive electrode in all-vanadium redox flow batteries is given by Melke et al. [14]. 

Most commonly, the battery will be configured with a stack of bipolar cells (10 -100 cells per stack) to give a useful output voltage and with parallel flows for the electrolytes to each of the cells in the stack. Hence, the electrodes will be bipolar with a solid core from carbon, graphite, or a carbon/polymer composite and the three-dimensional elements bonded or pressed onto either side of the solid core. The composites are a blend of a chemically stable polymer and a micron-scaled carbon powder, most commonly an activated carbon Radford et al. [127] have considered the influence of the source of the carbon and the chemical and thermal treatments on the properties of such activated carbons, especially the pore size and distribution [126]. Even though reticulated vitreous carbon has been used for the three-dimensional elements [117], the predominant materials are graphite cloths or felts with a thickness of up to 5 mm, and it is clear that such layers are essential to scale the current density and thereby achieve an acceptable power density. Details of electrode performance in the more developed flow batteries are not available but, for example, Skyllas-Kazacos et al. [124] have tabulated an overview of the development of the all vanadium redox flow battery that includes the electrode materials and the chemical and thermal treatments used to enhance activity and stability. 

Radford, G.J.W., Cox,)., Wills, R.G.A., and Walsh, F.C. (2008) Electrochemical characterisation of activated carbon particles used in redox flow batteries. / Power Sources, 185, 1499-1504. 

Chakrabarti MH, Brandon NP, Hajimolana SA et al (2014) Application of carbon materials in redox flow batteries. J Power Sources 253 150-166. doi 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2013.12.038... 

Leung PK, Ponce-de-Leon C, Low CTJ, Walsh FC (2011) Zinc deposition and dissolution in methanesulfonic acid onto a carbon composite electrode as the negative electrode reactions in a hybrid redox flow battery. Electrochim Acta 56 6536-6546. doi 10.1016/j.electacta.2011.04. Ill... 

Wang WH, Wang XD (2007) Investigation of Ir-modified carbon felt as the positive electrode of an all-vanadium redox flow battery. Electrochim Acta 52 6755-6762. doi 10.1016/j. electacta.2007.04.121... 

Munaiah Y, Dheenadayalan 8, Ragupathy P, Pillai VK (2013) High performance carbon nanotube based eleetrodes for zinc bromine redox flow batteries. ECS J Solid State Sci Technol 2 M3182-M3186. doi 10.1149/2.024310jss... 

Munaiah Y, Suresh S, Dheenadayalan S et al (2014) Comparative electrocatalytic performance of single-walled and multiwalled carbon nanotubes for zinc bromine redox flow Batteries. J Phys Chem C 118 14795-14804. doi 10.1021/jp503287r... 

Zhao P, Zhang H, Zhou H, Yi B (2005) Nickel foam and carbon felt applications for sodium polysulfide/bromine redox flow battery electrodes. Electrochim Acta 51 1091-1098. doi 10. 1016/j.electacta.2005.06.008... 

The electrode materials for redox flow batteries can be classified into two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) types. CF is conunonly used as a 3D electrode, while carbon cloth, carbon black, and AC are 2D electrodes. Typically, in a sodium polysulfide/bromine RFB, CF, carbon cloth, carbon black, and AC are main electrode materials for an aqueous bromide/bromine couple, and AC, metal foam, and CF are main electrode materials for a negative half-cell. 

Zhou HT, Zhang HM, Zhao P, Yi BL. A comparative study of carbon felt and activated carbon based electrodes for sodium polysutfide/bromine redox flow battery. Electrochim Acta 2006 51 6304-12. 

Zhua HQ, Zhang YM, Yuea L, Li WS, Li GL, Shu D, et al. Graphite-carbon nanotube composite electrodes for aU vanadium redox flow batteries. J Power Sources 2008 184 637-40. 

B. Caglar, P. Fischer, P. Kauranen, M. Karttunen, and P. Eisner, Development of carbon nanotube and graphite filled polyphenylene sulfide based bipolar plates for all-vanadium redox flow batteries. Journal of Power Sources, 256,88-95,2014. 

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