Proteins electrostatic interactions

Femtosecond spectroscopy has an ideal temporal resolution for the study of ultrafast water motions from femtosecond to picosecond time scales [33-36]. Femtosecond solvation dynamics is sensitive to both time and length scales and can be a good probe for protein hydration dynamics [16, 37-50]. Recent femtosecond studies by an extrinsic labeling of a protein with a dye molecule showed certain ultrafast water motions [37-42]. This kind of labeling usually relies on hydrophobic interactions, and the probe is typically located in the hydrophobic crevice. The resulting dynamics mostly reflects bound water behavior. The recent success of incorporating a synthetic fluorescent amino acid into the protein showed another way to probe protein electrostatic interactions [43, 48]. 

A phosphoryl group adds two negative charges to a modified protein. Electrostatic interactions in the unmodified protein can be disrupted and new electrostatic interactions can be formed. Such structural changes can markedly alter substrate binding and catalytic activity. 

Electrostatics is one of the fundamental interactions that determine the structure, stability, binding affinity, chemical properties, and hence the biological reactivity, of proteins. Electrostatic interactions may contribute to the biological reactivity of proteins in a number of ways, which may be divided into the following general areas ... 

Also, this means that the cytochrome c - cytochrome b2 core interaction is weaker than the interaction observed between cytochrome c with the two other proteins. Electrostatic interaction would pre-orient the proteins before any physical contact, facilitating the formation of a complex. Thus, when the interactions are weak, the pre -orientation is not adequate at every collision and the probability of formation of a complex is weak... 

Because protein-ba sed foams depend upon the intrinsic molecular properties (extent and nature of protein-protein interactions) of the protein, foaming properties (formation and stabilization) can vary immensely between different proteins. The intrinsic properties of the protein together with extrinsic factors (temperature, pH, salts, and viscosity of the continuous phase) determine the physical stability of the film. Films with enhanced mechanical strength (greater protein-protein interactions), and better rheological and viscoelastic properties (flexible residual tertiary structure) are more stable (12,15), and this is reflected in more stable foams/emulsions (14,33). Such films have better viscoelastic properties (dilatational modulus) ( ) and can adapt to physical perturbations without rupture. This is illustrated by -lactoglobulin which forms strong viscous films while casein films show limited viscosity due to diminished protein-protein (electrostatic) interactions and lack of bulky structure (steric effects) which apparently improves interactions at the interface (7,13 19). 

Polyethylene glycol IgM, some IgG Antibody Sharing of protein hydration shells Electrolyte depletion IgM, some IgG Antibody Proteirv-protein electrostatic interactions Organic acid All Ig Contaminants Decreased solubility of acidic proteins... 

Protein adsorption has been studied with a variety of techniques such as ellipsome-try [107,108], ESCA [109], surface forces measurements [102], total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRE) [103,110], electron microscopy [111], and electrokinetic measurement of latex particles [112,113] and capillaries [114], The TIRE technique has recently been adapted to observe surface diffusion [106] and orientation [IIS] in adsorbed layers. These experiments point toward the significant influence of the protein-surface interaction on the adsorption characteristics [105,108,110]. A very important interaction is due to the hydrophobic interaction between parts of the protein and polymeric surfaces [18], although often electrostatic interactions are also influential [ 116]. Protein desorption can be affected by altering the pH [117] or by the introduction of a complexing agent [118]. 

The interest in vesicles as models for cell biomembranes has led to much work on the interactions within and between lipid layers. The primary contributions to vesicle stability and curvature include those familiar to us already, the electrostatic interactions between charged head groups (Chapter V) and the van der Waals interaction between layers (Chapter VI). An additional force due to thermal fluctuations in membranes produces a steric repulsion between membranes known as the Helfrich or undulation interaction. This force has been quantified by Sackmann and co-workers using reflection interference contrast microscopy to monitor vesicles weakly adhering to a solid substrate [78]. Membrane fluctuation forces may influence the interactions between proteins embedded in them [79]. Finally, in balance with these forces, bending elasticity helps determine shape transitions [80], interactions between inclusions [81], aggregation of membrane junctions [82], and unbinding of pinched membranes [83]. Specific interactions between membrane embedded receptors add an additional complication to biomembrane behavior. These have been stud-... 

Niedermeier, C, Tavan, P. A structure-adapted multipole method for electrostatic interactions in protein dynamics. J. chem. Phys. 101 (1994) 734-748. 

Tanford, C., Kirkwood, J. G. Theory of protein titration curves. I. General equations for impenetrable spheres. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 79 (1957) 5333-5339. 6. Garrett, A. J. M., Poladian, L. Refined derivation, exact solutions, and singular limits of the Poisson-Boltzmann equation. Ann. Phys. 188 (1988) 386-435. Sharp, K. A., Honig, B. Electrostatic interactions in macromolecules. Theory and applications. Ann. Rev. Biophys. Chem. 19 (1990) 301-332. 

By using an effective, distance-dependent dielectric constant, the ability of bulk water to reduce electrostatic interactions can be mimicked without the presence of explicit solvent molecules. One disadvantage of aU vacuum simulations, corrected for shielding effects or not, is the fact that they cannot account for the ability of water molecules to form hydrogen bonds with charged and polar surface residues of a protein. As a result, adjacent polar side chains interact with each other and not with the solvent, thus introducing additional errors. 

Fig. 5. Protein folding. The unfolded polypeptide chain coUapses and assembles to form simple stmctural motifs such as -sheets and a-hehces by nucleation-condensation mechanisms involving the formation of hydrogen bonds and van der Waal s interactions. Small proteins (eg, chymotrypsin inhibitor 2) attain their final (tertiary) stmcture in this way. Larger proteins and multiple protein assembhes aggregate by recognition and docking of multiple domains (eg, -barrels, a-helix bundles), often displaying positive cooperativity. Many noncovalent interactions, including hydrogen bonding, van der Waal s and electrostatic interactions, and the hydrophobic effect are exploited to create the final, compact protein assembly. Further stmctural...

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