Process Structures and Areas

Processing facilities may be constructed at grade in open air, in elevated multilevel open-air process structures, or in enclosed process structures or buildings. 

A process structure is an industrial occupancy designed for, and suitable only for, a particular type of processing operation. It is characterized by a relatively low density of employee population with much of its volume occupied 

Separation distance provides the basic passive fire protection feature for process structures. The separation distance between different process structures and from storage areas, utility operations, and important buildings or facilities should be based on the hazards and risks involved. Refer to Guidelines for Facility Siting and Layout (CCPS, 2003b) for further spacing guidance. 

In colder climates, enclosures may be necessary to mitigate freeze-related hazards. In enclosed process buildings, additional fire protection features should be added to compensate for reduced ventilation and dissipation of flammable vapors, limited access for firefighting, and handling of runoff from spills. 

Enclosed process structures or enclosed areas within process structures require careful consideration of the following  

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Fixed fire protection systems for process structures and areas can be activated automatically or manually. Automatic activation provides quicker and more reliable response than is typically possible with manual activation. Vari-... 

Distribution runs inside or through process structures and areas... 

Large numbers of wood pallets can present a serious fire threat if stacked outdoors, too close to processing structures and areas, cable trays, pipe racks, tanks, power lines, buildings, and warehouses. Some commonly used separation distances are shown in Table 8-15. 

Local containment systems within process structures or areas are intended to retain spills released from process systems within the immediate area of their release. Containment systems are passive mitigation systems usually employed to prevent the spread of spills and releases of flammable or combustible liquids and other materials. Local containment systems are also used for controlling spills of powders or dusts and for molten materials that solidify at ambient temperatures. Containment systems are commonly used to ... 

By design, local containment systems hold the spilled or released material within the process structure or area. Hence, the structure, equipment, vessels, and piping will be exposed to any fire resulting from the contained material and will require fire protection. 

Fire alarm bells or horns should be located in all buildings and on all levels of process structures and other open areas in sufficient number to ensure that all parts of the facility are alerted. Areas with high noise levels should have alarms with a sufficient sound level to overcome ambient noise otherwise, revolving beacons or strobe lights should be used in high noise areas. 

The design of process structures or areas should consider the management of liquid spills and releases, rain water, and fire water. The provision of appropriately selected and designed drainage and containment is particularly important for those areas handling flammable and combustible liquids. The options are ... 

Drainage systems are passive mitigation systems intended to collect, control, and route spilled process liquids, rainfall, and fire water out of the process structure or area. Drainage systems provide gravity drainage of these liquids from the process structure or area in order to ... 

The battery limit is a geographic boundary which deflnes the manufacturing area of the process. This includes process equipment and buildings or structures to house it but excludes boilerhouse facilities, pollution control, site infrastructure, etc. 

In the present section, attention will focus on the size of fragments created in a violent fragmentation event. The objective will be to explore some theoretical ideas which appear important to the dynamic fragmentation process. The two underlying phenomena that have dominated theoretical efforts in this area of dynamic fracture mechanics are the presence of an inherent flaw structure, and energy balance in the fracture process. 

The decision to cathodically protect reinforced concrete structures depends on technical and economic considerations. Cathodic protection is not an economic process for small area displacements of the concrete due to corrosion of the reinforcing steel arising from insufficient concrete covering. On the other hand, the... 

Organic coatings are applied mainly to mild steel structures and equipment. They are also used on aluminum, zinc-sprayed and galvanized steel, but to a lesser extent. The applications for organic coatings can be divided into three areas corrosion by atmospheric pollution, protection from splash by process liquors, and linings for immersion in process liquors [70-74]. 

The physicochemical properties of carbon are highly dependent on its surface structure and chemical composition [66—68], The type and content of surface species, particle shape and size, pore-size distribution, BET surface area and pore-opening are of critical importance in the use of carbons as anode material. These properties have a major influence on (9IR, reversible capacity <2R, and the rate capability and safety of the battery. The surface chemical composition depends on the raw materials (carbon precursors), the production process, and the history of the carbon. Surface groups containing H, O, S, N, P, halogens, and other elements have been identified on carbon blacks [66, 67]. There is also ash on the surface of carbon and this typically contains Ca, Si, Fe, Al, and V. Ash and acidic oxides enhance the adsorption of the more polar compounds and electrolytes [66]. 

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