Price evolution

The price evolution of compostable polymer materials over the past 10 years are presented in Table 9.1. 

In 1998 the prices of compostable pofymers were high. Therefore, it was often stated that 

In the biodegradable plastics market, aliphatic polyesters (in the main PLA, the present main competitor of starch thermoplastics) sell for 1.5-2.5 per kilo. Starch itself is very cheap ( 0.33 per kilo), but starch-based biopolymers such as Mater-Bi (from Novamont) are more expensive ( 2.40-3.4 per kilo) [6]. 

Annual production of 5000 tonnes of P(3HB-co-5 mol% 3HHX) was estimated to cost from 3.5 to 4.5 USD/kg, depending on presumed production performances [4], Similar scale production of P(3 HB) from glucose was estimated to cost 3.8. 2 USD/kg. 

If it is possible to produce polyhydroxyalkanoates at a cost of 1-2 EUR per kg, a diverse range of potential applications become commercially very attractive. According to some industry specialists, this price range is already feasible with current, large-scale and fully integrated bioreactors and downstream processing technology [5]. 

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Figure 7.13. Pt, Pd and Rh price evolution over last 20 years.

Fig. 11.5 Price evolution for glycerol and propane-1,2-diol. (After [98]).

With the price evolution of glycerol ahead, old and forgotten reactions will be excavated and reinvestigated to meet current needs, while many unique and inventive catalytic reactions are to be expected in the years ahead. 

The next step is to use this tree to describe the bond s price evolution, ignoring its call feature. The tree is constructed from the final date backwards, using the bond s ex-coupon values. At each node, the ex-coupon bond price is equal to the sum of the expected value plus the coupon six months forward, discounted at the appropriate six-month yield. At year 3, the bond s price at all the nodes is 100.00, its ex-coupon par value. At year 2.5, the bond s price at the highest yield, 7-782 percent, is calculated by using this rate to discount the bond s expected price six months forward. The price in six months in both the up and the down state is 103.00—the ex-coupon value plus the final coupon payment. The bond s price at this node, therefore, is derived using the risk-neutral pricing formula as follows ... 

Chapter 9 presents the future prospects for compostable polymer materials. The price evolution ditring the last decade, manufacturing capacity, recent legislative measures as well as potential markets are presented. 

Using real data, we are trying to find the suitable stochastic model. The collected dataset consists of the daily closing prices for 13 equity indexes from different countries. Starting from 1th January 1993 until 11th January 2013, the corresponding data series for each index forms 5000 daily points. In a preliminary study we found that the probabiUty distribution of the log-returns follows a combined density function of Normal and Laplace distribution, which is consistent with the previously mentioned proprieties of real data. In section 2, the model that we propose to use for the description of the dynamic of equity indexes is presented. First the data evolution is represented and briefly descried in order to clarify the chosen model motivation. Afterwards the two essential parts of the proposed model are represented the economic environmental is divided into three states (calm, normal and agitated) controlled by an external covariate that follows a Markov Chain, and the price evolution of different index at each state is considered to follow a log-normal diffusion, log-uniform jump... 

For each equity price evolution, the log-return dataset is calculated using equation (6). Data classification is done by separating the time interval into sub-periods of 3 months. A sub-period SubP is considered to be in one of the three Markov chain states (Nl, N2 and N3) as follows ... 

The surface noise is clearly visible, masking small flaw signal. This is the price paid by using a long excitation. This noise produces at the same time, an evolution of the thickness of the tube and of the lift-off, a misalignement and a miscentring of the... 

The most dramatic evolution of a microwave power source is that of the cooker magnetron for microwave ovens (48). These magnetrons are air-cooled, weigh 1.2 kg, generate weU over 700 W at 2.45 GHz into a matched load, and exhibit a tube efficiency on the order of 70%. AppHcation is enhanced by the avaHabiHty of comparatively inexpensive microwave power and microwave oven hardware (53). The cost of these tubes has consistently dropped (11) since their introduction in the eady 1970s. As of this writing (ca 1995), cost is < 15/tube for large quantities. For small quantities the price is < 100/tube. 

The resulting melt is cooled lapidly to prevent reversion to calcium cyanamide. The product is marketed in the form of flakes, dark gray because of the presence of carbon. Typical composition is shown in Table 7. Because the rate of hydrogen cyanide evolution is relatively high, it is readily adaptable to fumigation. Specific gravity of the product is 1.8 to 1.9. The price of black cyanide is generally lower than sodium cyanide it is manufactured in Canada and South Africa. 

See also Aircraft Aviation Fuel Efficiency of Energy Use, Economic Concerns and Engines Kerosene Subsidies and Energy Costs Supply and Demand and Energy Prices Transportation, Evolution of Energy Use and. 

Price, D. K. and Burley, N. T. 1993. Constraints on the evolution of attractive traits Genetic (co)variance of zebra finch bill colour. Heredity 71 405 -12. 

An accurate measure of the apparent causes of the evolution of pharmaceutical expenditure could be obtained by taking chain-linked Laspeyres price indexes for each therapeutic group with a suitable level of disaggregation. In this situation, ideally we would have monetary measures of willing-... 

In this section we analyse the effects of price regulation and control systems in pharmaceutical markets on levels of consumption, the level and evolution of prices and levels of expenditure. 

One study on the evolution of Spanish public pharmaceutical expenditure21 concludes that spending on pharmaceuticals rose 264 per cent in real terms from 1980 to 1996. This figure can be broken down into a 39 per cent decrease in the relative price of medicines, a 10 per cent increase in the quantity and a variation of 442 per cent explained by a residual that reflects the effect of the introduction of new products and a shift in consumption. As we can see from these figures, we have no practical price index and no quantitative approximation to the breakdown of the increase in expenditure into price and quality. 

Lobato s work19 makes at least four contributions. First, it seeks to quantify the demand for pharmaceuticals and argues that those variables that are employed in an attempt to approximate physical consumption, such as the number of prescriptions or packages, are not useful because they sum heterogeneous units. Monetary valuation presents the problem (considered below) of what price indexes are to be applied as deflators when studying the evolution of demand and expenditure over time. 

Nonell and Borrell6 also study the evolution of public drug expenditure between 1986 and 1997 and break down its growth into five factors demography, coverage, index of prices actually paid for the products financed, number of prescriptions per insured person, and the real cost per prescription calculated as a remainder. They conclude that the dynamics of the average cost per prescription is the main driving force behind expenditure (p. 123). 

Jansson applies the model to the current Spanish regulation and analyses the effect of the different liberalization measures. In the first case, new pharmacies would open and consumers would benefit, but we can say nothing from a social point of view. In the second case, the evolution of the liberalized prices would depend on the regulation regarding the number of pharmacies. Finally, she studies the effects of total deregulation. She defines the optimal regulation as one whereby a price is fixed and entry is liberalized for that price. 

The latest development are micromechanical sensors. Their development began with the large-scale introduction of silicon micromachined pressure sensors to the automotive industry in the nineties, which entailed a massive price reduction. Then acceleration sensors for airbag firing, yaw rate sensors and more were introduced. Many devices are still being discovered. The next step is product evolution, with introduction times between a few years and over a decade, as shown in Tab. 2.2. Once customers in the industry have accepted a product, investment in large-scale production can go ahead. It helps to find more applications for the product The time scale for the product evolution process varies from about five... 

The value chain network structure fosters an evolution towards market and pricing mechanisms at the interfaces between networks comparable to... 

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