Poultry production

The egg laying performance and weight gain of table birds have both increased markedly, but so has the proportion of hens kept in battery systems. In 1960 the number of eggs per bird per year averaged over all systems was 185 in 1990 it was 253 per bird per year (Fig. 4.5). The average per free range bird was 220 whilst that of the battery hen was 290. 

In 1960, 31 % of laying birds were kept in free range systems, 19% in battery systems and 50% in deep litter systems (Fig. 4.6). In 1990, battery systems had increased to 85%, free range had decreased to 13% and deep litter systems had almost disappeared, down to 2% 

In 1952 a table bird of 2.0 kg consumed 6.0 kg of food in 13 weeks in 1992 a bird reached the same weight in only six weeks and ate a mere 3.8 kg of food. Organic poultry producers cannot hope to match these figures. In order to observe the much stricter welfare code promulgated by the Soil Association, they have to concentrate on a quality market and abjure mass production. 

The qualities of a good layer include a high yield of large eggs with both contents and shells of good quality, good food conversion for 

Cost of feed (0-6 weeks) from birth to 2 kg (conventional 3.8 kg food at 15p per kg) 0.57  

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Most poultry production, and a growing percentage of swiae production, takes place ia iatensive, confinement operations. Much of the poultry production is carried out under a system of vertical iategration ia which a producer hatches the chicks, grows them ia the producer s faciUties or ia contract facihties, provides the feed, processes the animals, and markets the product. This system of vertically iategrated production is not as common ia the swiae iadustry. 

PVDE is a nontoxic resin and may be safely used in articles intended for repeated contact with food (190). Based on studies under controked conditions, including acute oral, systemic, subchronic, and subacute contact implantation and tissue culture tests, no adverse toxicological or biological response has been found in test animals (191,192). PVDE is acceptable for use in processing and storage areas in contact with meat or poultry products prepared under federal inspection and it complies with the 3-A sanitary standards for dairy equipment. 

The FDA first approved use of a polyether ionophore as a feed additive for catde ia 1975. Ionophores were first isolated from bacteria generally of the Streptomjces genus, but are produced commercially by bacterial fermentation (qv). Monensia [17090-79-8] and other ionophores are being fed to over 90% of feedlot cattle grown for beef (53) to enhance efficiency of gain improvements of 5—10% are common. Ionophores also are used as anticoccidial dmgs ia poultry production and have similar, but lesser, effects ia mminants (54). 

Fig. 1. Red meat and poultry production in the United States (1). Red meat is based on carcass weight, poultry is based on ready-to-cook weight, and 1991 production is preliminary data. (O) Veal, ( ) beef, (A) chicken, (A) pork, (D) lamb, and (B) turkey.

Nutritional Labeling Descriptors. In order to avoid confusion, descriptive terms must be accompanied by definitions which adequately explain the terms. In the case of nutrition-related claims, analytical sampling offers a means of assuring the accuracy of the stated claims. The USDA s FSIS has proposed a Hst of descriptors relevant for meat and poultry products (Table 3). 

Table 3. Proposed Descriptors for Nutrition Labeling in Meat and Poultry Products ...

Lampkin, N. (1997) Organic Poultry Production. Welsh Institute of Rural Studies, University of Wales, Aberystwyth. 

More recently, a range of other quality and safety issues have been recognised by consumers and now influence poultry meat and egg buying patterns and behaviour. Most importantly this includes (i) the routine use of antibiotics as growth promoters and curative medicines and the potential for development of transferable antibiotic resistance, (ii) risk associated with enteric pathogen (e.g. Salmonella and Campylobacter) and toxin (e.g. dioxin) contaminants of poultry products, (iii) the environmental impact of poultry production and (iv) the sensory and nutritional quality of eggs and poultry meat (Menzi et al., 1997 Hamm et al., 2002 Rodenburg et al., 2004 Horsted et al., 2005). 

The issue of anthelmintic use in poultry production is covered in Chapter 12 and quality assurance systems based on hazard analysis by critical control point (HACCP) systems are described in detail by van Elzakker et al. (2004) and in Chapters 22 and 23 and are therefore not addressed here. 

Table 8.1 General principles for organic poultry production according to the EU regulation...

Most organic poultry production is currently based on the same breeding stock as conventional farming and the principal problems (see above) are the same. The discussion group at the fourth NAHWOA Workshop (Network for Animal Health and Welfare in Organic Agriculture) identified the following main problems (Hirt et al 2001) ... 

The main poultry health problems that may affect safety of poultry products are Salmonella and Campylobacter infections (Ogden et al, 2004a,b see... 

Kijlstra A. (2005). The role of organic and free range poultry production system on the dioxin levels in eggs , in Hovi, M. Jan Zastawny and S. Padel Proceeding of the 3rd SAFO Workshop, 16-18 September 2004, Falenty, Poland. University of Reading, UK, 83-90. 

Zollitsch W. (2003). Working group report Poultry production constraints and recommendations for enhancing health, welfare and food safety , in Hovi M., Martini A. and Padel S., Socio-Economic Aspects of Animal Health andFood Safety in Organic Farming System, Proceeding of the 1st SAFO Workshop 5-7 September 2003, Florence, Italy. University of Reading. 

Permin, A., Bisgaard, M., Frandsen, F., Pearman, M., Kold, J. and Nansen, P. (1999). Prevalence of gastrointestinal helminths in different poultry production systems . British Poultry Science, 40(4) 439 43. 

Alternative therapies to reduce enteric bacterial infections and improve the microbiological safety of pig and poultry production systems... 

The use of prebiotics in pig and poultry production is not described in detail here, because an excellent recent textbook on prebiotics is available (Tannock, 2005). See also Section 13.6 on synbiotics below. 

Inborr J. (2000). Swedish poultry production without in-feed antibiotics - a testing ground or a model for the future . Austral Poult Scie Sympm, 12, 1-9. 

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