Polymerase chain reaction interpretation

Provided a sample of DNA can be obtained, a restriction analysis can be carried ont. A match between the restriction fragments from a sample of DNA left at the scene of a crime and that of a snspect is a valnable tool in forensic science. The usefulness of this techniqne is increased enormously by combining it with the polymerase chain reaction, since the amount of DNA extracted from a very small amount of tissue can be increased enormonsly, providing enough for a restriction analysis. Tissne samples as small as a single cell, a hair, a drop of sahva, a piece of dandruff or a smear of semen are snfflcient to prodnce enough DNA. It has produced a revolution in forensic science. However, caution must be applied to interpretation of the results for... 

The traditional microbiological methods are very time consuming and sometimes limited concerning their interpretation. For that reason fast analysis methods as well as automated methods have been developed the latter are often used in specialised microbiological laboratories. During the last few years more and more modern biotechnological methods have been implemented into quality control, for example the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay or more recently the polymerase chain reaction, which allows the detection of very specific microorganisms. 

Brain biopsies for non-neoplastic diseases often require IHC combined with additional studies such as microbio-logic culture, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), Western blot, or electron microscopy (EM). Specialized centers are available to assist interpretations of these. ... 

Experimental neuroscience benefits from a series of confirmatory approaches, e.g.. Western blotting, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or in situ hybridization, microarrays of relevant RNA(s), etc., that allow drawing a watershed between a false positive and a negative reaction, but this is not often the case for pathologists that work on postmortem materials. As it is possible didactically to divide the reasons for an improper outcome of an ICC experiment into reaction and interpretation biases, it is important to recall here that specimen fixation, tissue processing, antigen retrieval, and the detection system can all give rise to a reaction bias see Sect. 2.4). 

In dye terminator labeling four differently-fluor-eseing dye-ddNTP species, synthesized by reacting ddATP, ddGTP, ddCTP and ddTTP each with a different dye, are incubated, in small amounts, in the same reaction vessel with the primer annealed to the DNA to be sequenced, the four dNTPs and the DNA polymerase. This generates a mixture of four sets of DNA chains, the components of each of which have the primer at their 5 -end and a differently-fluorescing 2 ,3 -dideoxyribonucleotide at their 3 -end. This mixture is then processed and interpreted in the same way as that of the dye primer labeling method. 

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