Pioneering Applications

Food products can generally be considered as a mixture of many components. For example, milk, cream and cheeses are primarily a mixture of water, fat globules and macromolecules. The concentrations of the components are important parameters in the food industry for the control of production processes, quality assurance and the development of new products. NMR has been used extensively to quantify the amount of each component, and also their states [59, 60]. For example, lipid crystallization has been studied in model systems and in actual food systems [61, 62]. Callaghan et al. [63] have shown that the fat in Cheddar cheese was diffusion-restricted and was most probably associated with small droplets. Many pioneering applications of NMR and MRI in food science and processing have been reviewed in Refs. [19, 20, 59]. 

Other scientists besides biomedical researchers have employed combinatorial chemistry. In 1995, X.-D. Xiang and Peter G. Schultz, then at the University of California, Berkeley, and their colleagues published a paper in Science describing a pioneering application of this technique in materials research. As described in A Combinatorial Approach to Materials Discovery, Schultz and his colleagues performed parallel synthesis—a lot of reactions at the same time—to make an ar-... 

The expressions in (3.72) and (3.73) are valid only for monatomic ideal gases such as He or Ar, and must be replaced by somewhat different expressions for diatomic or polyatomic molecules (Sidebar 3.8). However, the classical expressions for polyatomic heat capacity exhibit serious errors (except at high temperatures) due to the important effects of quantum mechanics. (The failure of classical mechanics to describe the heat capacities of polyatomic species motivated Einstein s pioneering application of Planck s quantum theory to molecular vibrational phenomena.) For present purposes, we may envision taking more accurate heat capacity data from experiment [e.g., in equations such as (3.84a)] if polyatomic species are to be considered. The term perfect gas is sometimes employed to distinguish the monatomic case [for which (3.72), (3.73) are satisfactory] from more general polyatomic ideal gases with Cv> nR. 

The pioneering applications of molecular mechanics to coordination compounds were conformational analyses127,281. Recent applications involving the computation of conformer equilibria discussed in this chapter are studies of solution structure refinements126,29 1, racemate separations131 3il and the evaluation of reaction pathways11 1,34,3S1. The importance of conformer equilibria in the areas of electron transfer rates and redox potentials is discussed in Chapter 10, and many examples discussed in the other chapters of Part II indicate how important the prediction of conformational equilibria is in various areas of coordination chemistry. 

The pioneering application of the Polonovski reaction to the synthesis of anhy-drovinblastine by Potier s group22" has been described in detail 159 the work of Kutney s group in this same area has also been published in extenso.160... 

One might suppose that this pioneering application of radiofrequency/optical double resonance techniques to the study of an ion beam would soon be followed by others but, so far, this has not happened. This study involves a combination of different sophisticated techniques, not commonly found in the same laboratory. 

Due to their high electrical conductivity, metals constitute the most typical class of materials that can be studied by STM. In the context of porosity, silicon has been, by far, the most frequently studied metal using STM. Parkhutik et al. [36] made a rather pioneering application of STM to study the effect of silicon electrochemical anodization regime on the resulting porosity. Closely packed cylindrical mesopores were shown to form at low current densities, whereas branched, fibrous-like mesopores were obtained at high current densities. A simulation model was used to justify the formation of these two different types of pores. 

It is interesting to note that in the pioneering application of this approach [13], loop-based sample injection was accomplished using a channel drilled into the rotor of a rotary injection valve, which acted as the volume-selecting element instead of an external sampling loop. 

Cytochrome c (example of one pioneer application of ion exchange resins for protein separation)... 

This study was in many respects a pioneering application of the C VM in Italy. Many insights have been gained that may be useful for future Italian C VM studies. For example, it was concluded at an early stage that face-to-face interviews were the only reasonable data collection option. At present, the response rates that can be expected for postal questionnaires are too low, and telephone interviews are only likely to be useful for valuation issues that are already familiar to the respondents before the interview. Moreover, the face-to-face interviews turned out to work rather well in practice. A high response rate was obtained and no interviewer bias was foimd. The lack of predictability and other problems related to the benefit estimates cannot be blamed on the face-to-face interviews per se. These problems concern instead the types of data that were collected by the inter-... 

Being originally developed for studies in condensed matter physics (Alder and Wainright 1957), it was gradually extended to many applications on phase transformations, dynamics, and structures of crystals, molecules, and fluids (Yonezawa 1990). The first pioneering applications of molecular dynamics (MD) on... 

One of the key advances in computational chemistry during the last quarter of the twentieth century was the development of simulation methods to study motions of atoms and molecules in condensed-phase environments. The paper reviewed here is noteworthy for its pioneering application of molecular dynamics techniques to proteins, and (along with the 1976 Warshel and Levitt paper on lysozyme, discussed elsewhere in this issue) can be considered to herald an increased interest among the computational chemistry community on the problems dealing with the structures and dynamics of biological macromolecules. 

There will be many more industrial applications in the future, as soon as the new useful property combinations of organic metals, especially polyaniline, are more broadly known, and more confidence has been built in the market based on the first pioneering applications. There might come sensors, actuators, or gas separation membranes, or even totally different applications that we even now cannot imagine. 

Another important strategy to initiate cascade reactions is based on the utilization of the catalytic asymmetric conjugate addition followed by intramolecular trapping of the resulting intermediate. One of the pioneering applications of this concept is... 

However, due to the cheap computer power available, evaluation of single-crystal neutron diffraction data (at the level of atomic coordinates in the unit cell and the Debye-Waller factors associated with them) is a routine task nowadays. The trick is to apply direct methods of phase determination - methods that depend on the many mutual relationships (inequalities and probabilities) between structure factors and their phases. The simplest such constraint is that scattering power in solids is concentrated on atoms, which are well-defined regions by their size and shape. (For pioneering applications, see the works published by Karle and Karle (1966), Bernal and Watkins (1972) and Jonsson and Hamilton (1972).) Similar conditions cannot be cast into exact mathematical equations, but computer algorithms can easily cope with them. 

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