Pine forests

The western pine beetle Dendroctonus brevicomis is perhaps the most destmctive insect enemy of western pine forests. The aggregation pheromone is a mixture of the terpenoid myrcene [123-35-3J (163) from the tree and the frass pheromones exo-hsevicomki [20290-99-7] (164) and frontalin [28401-39-0] (165). The Norway spmce beede Ips tppopraphus converts the tree terpenoid myrcene into the frass pheromone ipsdienol [33628-00-3] (166) and the beedes also produce 2-methyl-3-buten-2-ol [115-18-4] and rir-verbenol [473-67-6] (167), all of which are components of the aggregation pheromone. 

Plants produce a vast array of terpenes, alkenes built in multiples of five carbon atoms. Many terpenes have characteristic fragrances. For example, the fresh odor of a pine forest is due to pinene, a ten-carbon molecule with a ring structure and one double bond. The fragrances of terpenes make them important in the flavor and fragrance industry. Limonene, another ten-carbon molecule with a ring and two double bonds, is the principal component of lemon oil. Geraniol, a chainlike molecule with two double bonds, is one of the molecules that is responsible for the fragrance of roses and is used in many perfumes. Many other terpenes have important medicinal properties. 

Tolli J, GM King (2005) Diversity and structure of bacterial chemolithotrophic communities in pine forest and agroecosystem soils. Appl Environ Microbiol 71 8411-8418. 

Timonen S, KS Jorgensen, K Haahtela, R Sen (1998) Bacterial community structure at defined locations of Pinus sylvestris-Suillus bovinus and Pinus sylvestris-Paxillus involutus mycorrhizospheres in dry pine forest humus and nursery peat. Can J Microbiol 44 499-513. 

H.-O. Nohrstedt, K. Arnebrant, E. Baiith, and B. Soderstrom, Changes in carbon content, re.spiration rate, ATP content, and microbial biomass in nitrogen-fertilized pine forest soils in Sweden. Can. J. For. Res. 79 323 (1989). 

E. L. Nurmiaho-Lassila, S. Timonen, K. Haahtela, R. Sen, Bacterial colonization patterns of intact Pinus. syhe.siris mycorrhizospheres in dry pine forest soil an electron microscopy study. Can. J. Microbiol. 43 1017 (1997). 

Hoy, J.B. and PJ. Shea. 1981. Effects of lindane, chlorpyrifos, and carbaryl on a California pine forest soil arthropod community. Environ. Entomol. 10 732-740. 

Acute biological effects of the Chernobyl accident on local natural resources were documented by Sokolov et al. (1990). They concluded that the most sensitive ecosystems affected at Chernobyl were the soil fauna and pine forest communities and that the bulk of the terrestrial vertebrate community was not adversely affected by released ionizing radiation. Pine forests seemed to be the most sensitive ecosystem. One stand of 400 ha of Pirns silvestris died and probably received a dose of 80 to 100 Gy other stands experienced heavy mortality of 10- to 12-year-old trees and up to 95% necrotization of young shoots. These pines received an estimated dose of 8 to 10 Gy. Abnormal top shoots developed in some Pirns, and these probably received 3 to 4 Gy. In contrast, leafed trees such as birch, oak, and aspen in the Chernobyl Atomic Power Station zone survived undamaged, probably because they are about 10 times more radioresistant than pines. There was no increase in the mutation rate of the spiderwort, (Arabidopsis thaliana) a radiosensitive plant, suggesting that the dose rate was less than 0.05 Gy/h in the Chernobyl locale. 

The accident at the Chernobyl, Ukraine, nuclear reactor on April 26, 1986, contaminated much of the northern hemisphere, especially Europe, by releasing large amounts of radiocesium-137 and other radionuclides into the environment. In the immediate vicinity of Chernobyl at least 30 people died, more than 115,000 others were evacuated, and the consumption of locally produced milk and other foods was banned because of radiocontamination. The most sensitive local ecosystems were the soil fauna and pine forest communities. Elsewhere, fallout from Chernobyl measurably contaminated freshwater, marine, and terrestrial ecosystems, including flesh and milk of domestic livestock. Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) calves in Norway showed an increasing frequency of chromosomal aberrations that seemed to correlate with cesium-137 tissue concentrations tissue concentrations, in turn, were related to cesium-137 in lichens, an efficient absorber of airborne particles containing radiocesium and the main food source of reindeer during winter. A pattern similar to that of reindeer was documented in moose (Alces) in Scandinavia. 

McCormick, J.F. 1969. Effects of ionizing radiation on a pine forest. Pages 78-87 in D.J. Nelson and F.C. Evans (eds.). Symposium on Radioecology. Proceedings of the Second National Symposium. Available as CONF-670503 from The Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information, Natl. Bur. Standards, Springfield, VA 22151. 

A different reason for appropriating a material object comes from the kauri (Agathis alba) and merkus (Pinus merkusii) pine forests of Malaysia. Local people collect soft resin from these trees and sell it as a cash crop. Under the name Malay damar, this exudate is exported as a valued ingredient for high quality varnishes. 

Myakushko V.K., 1978. Pine forests of the plain part of Ukraine, Kiev, Naukova Dumka Publ., 256 p. 

Houston, D. B., and G. R. Stairs. Genetic control of sulfur dioxide and ozone tolerance in Eastern white pine. Forest Sci. 19 267-271, 1973. 

The term ponderosa-Jeffrey type is a general term that includes a mosaic of five subtypes described by McBride on the basis of species dominance. These subtypes are ponderosa pine forest, ponderosa pine-white fir forest, ponderosa pine-Jefh y pine forest, Jeffry pine forest, and Jeffrey pine-white fir forest. The injury by oxidant air pollutants is most intense in the types dominated by ponderosa pine and less intense in the Jeffry pine types. In the field plots of these various types, the average area covered by shrubs is only 3.8% in the ponderosa types, but 26% in the Jeffrey pine types. ... 

Arnts, R. R., Peterson, W. B., Seila, R. L., and Gay, B. W., Jr. (1982). Estimates of alpha-pinene emissions from a loblolly pine forest using an atmospheric diffusion model. 

Site of Investigation. The site of investigation was the Coconino National Forest. The Coconino National Forest is the largest contiguous ponderosa pine forest in North America. 

Emissions of monoterpenes have been observed from a variety of plants, including pines (e.g., Juuti et al., 1990 Guenther et al., 1994 Street et al., 1997 Staudt et al., 1997), resin in pine forests (e.g., Pio and Valente, 1998), spruce (Street et al., 1996), some deciduous trees such as oaks (e.g., Benjamin et al., 1996 Street et al., 1997 Kesselmeier et al., 1998), and gorse (e.g., Cao et al., 1997). Interestingly, as for ethene, increased emissions have been observed when plants are stressed (Fall, 1999). For example, Juuti et al. (1990) report that... 

Pio, C. A., and A. A. Valente, Atmospheric Fluxes and Concentrations of Monoterpenes in Resin-Tapped Pine Forests, Atmos. Enriron., 32, 683-691 (1998). 

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