Pesticides in the United States

Since 1945 the use of synthetic pesticides in the United States has grown 33-fold. The amounts of herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides used have changed with time due, in large part, to changes in agricultural practices and cosmetic standards (14, 15). At the same time, the toxicity and biological effectiveness of these pesticides have increased at least 10-fold (15). For example, in 1945 DDT was applied at a rate of about 2 kg/ha. With the more potent insecticides available now, similar effective insect control is achieved with pyrethroids and aldicarb applied at 0.1 kg/ha and 0.05 kg/ha, respectively. 

DeNoyelles, F., W.D. Kettle, and D.E. Sinn. 1982. The responses of plankton communities in experimental ponds to atrazine, the most heavily used pesticide in the United States. Ecology 63 1285-1293. 

However, PCP is the second heaviest used pesticide in the United States, although it has been mostly used for the purpose of wood preservation(1). Under such circumstances, an international symposium on "Pentachlorophenol" convened by K. Ranga Rao(University of West Florida) was held in Pensacola, Florida, June 27-29, 1977, concerning the chemistry, pharmacology, and environmental toxicology of PCP. At the symposium, I presented a paper(2) on the metabolism of PCP in fishes, mostly reviewing the works on the absorption, excretion and detoxification of PCP in fish and shellfish, which were done in our laboratory. 

Among the requirements for registration of pesticides in the United States, the 1978 guidelines proposed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (3) list general metabolism studies "in at least one mammalian species, preferably the laboratory rat. .." Although similar tests have been conducted on other terrestrial species with increasing frequency, the small rodents have remained the principal source of metabolism data from intact animals. 

Toxaphene was introduced as an insecticide in 1947 and became one of the most widely used chlorinated pesticides in the United States and in the world during the 1970s. The analysis and environmental fate of toxaphene has been... 

Harner, T., Bidleman, T., Jantunen, L.M.M., Mackey, D., 2001. Soil-air exchange model of persistent pesticides in the United States cotton belt. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 20, 1612-1621. 

Uses Chlordane is a viscous, amber-colored liquid. Technical-grade chlordane is a mixture of many structurally related compounds including trans-chlordane, cis-chlordane, chlordane, heptachlor, and /ran.v-nonachlor.14,15 Chlordane was used as a broad-spectrum pesticide in the United States from 1948 to 1988. Its uses included termite control in homes and pest control on agricultural crops (e.g., com, citrus, home lawns, gardens, turf, ornamental plants). 

Uses Pentachlorophenol is covered by the USEPA under RUP for preservation of wood material and as a GUP for other purposes.14,48 PCP was one of the most heavily used pesticides in the United States. Now, only certified applicators can purchase and use PCP. It is still used in industry as a wood preservative for... 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Guidelines for Registering Pesticides in the United States," Federal Register 40(123), 26802 (1975). 

Although we will not get to herbicides until later, it is appropriate to mention a very popular herbicide here. Glyphosate (also widely known as Round-Up) is the most widely used pesticide in the United States. In 2001, 40-50 million kilograms of glyphosate was used in the United States. This herbicide is used in conjunction with Round-Up Ready corn and soybeans, crops that have been genetically modified to be resistant to Round-Up. Thus, the entire field can be sprayed, and the weeds will die but the crop will not. 

Unlike 245T and silvex, 24D was not produced from 2,4,5-trichlorophenol and therefore, it never had 2378-TCDD as an impurity. As a result, 24D is still on the market. In fact, it is the fifth most widely used pesticide in the United States in 2001, 15-20 million kilograms was used. 

This compound was the fourth most used pesticide in the United States in 2001 at 15-20 million kilograms. 

This was the 16th most popular pesticide in the United States in 2001 at 3-5 million kilograms usage, but in 1987, it was the second most popular pesticide. This demonstrates that the pesticide market is always changing as new compounds are developed and as older compounds go out of patent protection. 

Captafol is a general use pesticide with a toxicity classification of IV (relatively nontoxic). It is classified a as restricted use pesticide in the United States. It is no longer sold in the United States. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration threshold limit value for captafol is reported to be 0.1 mgm . ... 

For human health, carbamates are usually regulated based on their potency for inhibiting acetylcholinesterase activity in the nervous system. Within the next two years (2004-2006), carbamate pesticides in the United States will be regulated as a mixture of compounds (rather as single compounds) with a common mechanism of action under the direction of the Food Quality Protection Act. 

MacMillan Smoke Wars, pp. 243—245 Quivik, Smoke and Tailings, pp. 434— 438. The Anaconda smelter produced 14,000 tons of arsenic in 1933 (it is unclear whether this is expressed as As or as As203) T. LeCain, The Limits of Eco-efficiency Arsenic Pollution and the Cottrell Electrical Precipitator in the U.S. Copper Smelting Industry, Environmental History, vol. 5, pp. 336—351 (2000). Arsenic usage for pesticides in the United States in 1934 can be calculated from P. A. Neal et al., A Study of the Effect of Lead Arsenate Exposure on Orchardists and Consumers of Sprayed Fruit, Public Health Service Bulletin 267, 1941, p. 12, as approximately 21,000 tons (as As). In this calculation, the average arsenic content of lead arsenate is assumed to be 20% and the annual consumption of Paris green is assumed to be 4.5 million pounds. 

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