Pancreas glucagon production

Cortical hormones include glucocorticoids (cortisol/corticosterone) and mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) medullar hormones are adrenaline and noradrenaline Pancreas Regulates glucose in blood via production of the hormones glucagon and insulin... 

Glucagon, a peptide of 29 amino acids, is a product of the A cells of the pancreas. It is the antagonist of insulin and, like insulin, mainly influences carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. Its effects are each opposite to those of insulin. Glucagon mainly acts via the second messenger cAMP (see p. 384). 

In their report the researchers describe a culturing technique that can turn mouse embryonic stem cells into cell clusters that resemble pancreatic islets. The clusters inner cells produced insulin, while outer cells produced glucagon and somatostatin, two other proteins typically synthesized by pancreatic cells. Most important, the embryonic stem cell-derived pancreas cells produce insulin in response to glucose, the fundamental role of beta cells that regulate insulin secretion. The major shortcoming of the system at this time is the low levels of insulin production. Refinements in culture technique or drug manipulation may be needed to achieve therapeutic levels. 

The islet cells of the pancreas synthesize and secrete insulin and glucagon. These hormones are important in regulating glucose uptake and use, as well as in other aspects of energy metabolism. Problems in the production and effects of insulin are typical of a disease known as diabetes mellitus. Diabetes mellitus can be categorized into two primary forms type 1 diabetes, which is caused by an absolute deficiency of insulin, and type 2 diabetes, which is caused by a decrease in peripheral insulin effects, combined with abnormal insulin release. 

Vasoactive inhibitory peptide (VIP) Small intestine, pancreas Vasodilator stimulates water and bicarbonate secretion, release of insulin and glucagon, and production of small intestinal juice... 

Chemistry, mechanism, and effects Glucagon is the product of the A cells of the endocrine pancreas. Like insulin, glucagon is a peptide but unlike insulin, glucagon acts on G protein-coupled receptors. Activation of glucagon receptors, which are located in heart, smooth muscle, and liver, stimulates adenylyl cyclase and increases intracellular cAMP. This results in increases in the heart rate and the force of contraction, increased hepatic glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis and relaxation of smooth muscle. The smooth muscle effect is particularly marked in the gut. 

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