Other types of radiation

Other types of radiation that are commonly used in diffraction analysis are neutrons and electrons. The properties of both are compared with those of x-rays in Table 2.2. 

Neutrons are usually produced in nuclear reactors they have variable energy and therefore, a white spectrum. Maximum flux of neutrons is usually obtained in an angstrom range of wavelengths. The main differences when compared to x-rays are as follows i) neutrons are scattered by nuclei, which are much smaller than electron clouds, and the scattering occurs on 

Scattering by electron density nuclei and magnetic spins of electrons electrostatic potential 

Use to determine atomic structure relatively simple very complex 

If unknown, electron scattering factor /fs) may be derived from x-ray scattering factor fx(s) as/(s) = k[Z - f2is)y, where k is constant.  

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Activation Process of inducing radioactivity in a material by bombardment with other types of radiation, such as neutrons. 

Everyone receives small radiation doses every day Figure 8.3-5 illustrates some of the doses received from background and other types of radiation. Note that the scale is logarithmic , and that background and cosmic-ray doses vary over an order of magnitude just with location and elevation. In addition to these natural sources, most people receive some medical and dental doses each year. 

Four other types of radiation detectors are the self-powered neutron detector, wide range fission chamber, flux wire, and photographic film. 

Other types of radiation exist, but for the purposes of simplicity, only alpha, beta, and gamma particles are discussed. The term particle is used even though radiation may be defined differently under other applications. 

Flood exposure with other types of radiation... 

Other types of radiation-induced discoloration in potatoes have also been reported in some cases and measures to avoid them have been studied [28,29]. 

S is a beta emitter, with no gamma or other type of radiation. It has the following properties ... 

Interferometric Raman spectroscopy Interferometric Raman Spectroscopy is a measurement technique that utilizes time-domain or space-domain measurements of electromagnetic radiation or other type of radiation for collecting Raman spectra based on the coherence of a radiative source. An example is a Fourier transform (FT) Raman spectrometer. 

Let us finally stress the fact that the photons whose wavelength corresponds to this energy range are the sole particles which can be selectively absorbed the above mentioned phenomena will never occur for the other types of radiation studied in this paper. 

As you may recall, isotopes are atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons. Isotopes of atoms with unstable nuclei are called radioisotopes. These unstable nuclei emit radiation to attain more stable atomic configurations in a process called radioactive decay. During radioactive decay, unstable atoms lose energy by emitting one of several types of radiation. The three most common types of radiation are alpha (a), beta ((3), and gamma (7). Table 25-2 summarizes some of their important properties. Later in this chapter you ll learn about other types of radiation that may be emitted in a nuclear reaction. 

Because of their mass and charge, alpha particles are relatively slow-moving compared with other types of radiation. Thus, alpha particles are not very penetrating—a single sheet of paper stops alpha particles. 

To explain these factors it is convenient to describe the determination of intensities with respect to X-ray diffraction. The differences that arise with other types of radiation are outlined below (Sections 6.12, 6.14, 6.17). 

C. Proportional Counters. Proportional counters are used to detect one type of radiation in the presence of other types of radiation or to obtain output signals greater than those obtainable with ionization chambers of equivalent size. Proportional counters may be used to either detect events or to measure absorbed energy (dose), because the output pulse is directly proportional to the energy released in the sensitive volume of the counter. Proportional counters are most widely used for the detection of alpha particles, beta, neutrons, and protons. 

In (2) the authors did not determine the Ce3+ yield in a deaerated solution, however, it can be estimated from the fact that the ratio of G(Ce3+)02 to G(Ce3+) found for a-radiation (6) and other types of radiation equals, —1.05. Substituting the known values into Equations 1-3 one finds the yields in a deaerated 0.8N H2S04 solution ... 

The most important advantage of the semiconductor detectors, compared to other types of radiation counters, is their superior energy resolution the ability to resolve the energy of particles out of a polyenergetic energy spectrum (energy resolution and its importance are discussed in Chaps. 9, 12-14). Other advantages are... 

Radiation protection may involve other types of radiation, and media other than air. For this reason, another unit was defined called the radiation absorbed dose or rad, defined as... 

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