Optical microscopy differential interference-contrast

Confocal scanning optical microscopy Differential interference contrast Energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy... 

In video microscopy, for instance, background is normally subtracted using differential interference contrast (DIC) [18]. This technique, which requires a number of manipulations from the user, may now be automated using a new method called polarization-modulated (PMDIC) [19,20], It requires the introduction of a liquid crystal electro-optic modulator and of a software module to handle difference images. PMDIC has been shown to bring improvements in imaging moving cells, which show a low contrast, as well as thick tissue samples. 

Optical microscopy, such as phase contrast or differential interference contrast. 

Powerful methods that have been developed more recently, and are currently used to observe surface micro topographs of crystal faces, include scanning tunnel microscopy (STM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), and phase shifting microscopy (PSM). Both STM and AFM use microscopes that (i) are able to detect and measure the differences in levels of nanometer order (ii) can increase two-dimensional magnification, and (iii) will increase the detection of the horizontal limit beyond that achievable with phase contrast or differential interference contrast microscopy. The presence of two-dimensional nuclei on terraced surfaces between steps, which were not observable under optical microscopes, has been successfully detected by these methods [8], [9]. In situ observation of the movement of steps of nanometer order in height is also made possible by these techniques. However, it is possible to observe step movement in situ, and to measure the surface driving force using optical microscopy. The latter measurement is not possible by STM and AFM. 

Hie most important optical technique for examining semiconductor wafer surfaces is the differential interference contrast microscopy method of Nomarski (N-DIC). First described in 1952, DIG... 

To understand the release mechanism, cryomicrotomy was used to slice 10 m-thick sections throughout the matrices. Viewed under an optical microscope, polymer films cast without proteins appeared as nonporous sheets. Matrices cast with proteins and sectioned prior to release displayed areas of either polymer or protein. Matrices initially cast with proteins and released to exhaustion (e.g., greater than 5 months) appeared as porous films. Pores with diameters as large as 100 /xm, the size of the protein particles, were observed. The structures visualized were also confirmed by Nomarski (differential interference contrast microscopy). It appeared that although pure polymer films were impermeable to macromolecules (2), molecules incorporated in the matrix dissolved once water penetrated the matrix and were then able to diffuse to the surface through pores created as the particles of molecules dissolved. Scanning electron microscopy showed that the pores were interconnected (7). 

Then, microscopic examinations follow optical research microscopes allow to determine the number, thickness, and color sequence of layers in paint fragments, and to recognize the textures as well as fundamental features of pigment and extender mixtures. Bright field and dark field illuminations, polarized light microscopy (incident and transmitted), particularly the differential interference contrast (DIC) procedure, and fluorescence microscopy are necessary for paint examinations (see Figure 3(A)-3(E)). 

Figure 31.2 Observation by differential interference contrast (Nomarski) fluorescence optical microscopy of the transformation from a tubular structure to an oligovesicular structure of phospholipid (A) suspended in a phosphoric buffer (T = 298 K, pH = 7.0, = 485 nm,...

---