Olive harvesting

Results of the analysis are proposed in Table 8. Cultivation gives an important contribution to the final impact of truffle sauce, while truffle production has a reduced impact, because it is a very extensive production. Olive trees cultivation uses fertilizers, diesel fuel for field operations, electricity for the olives harvest, herbicides and pesticides. 

Fantozzi, F. Bartocci, P. D Alessandro, B. Testarmata, F. Fantozzi P. Carbon footprint of truffle sauce in central Italy by direct measurement of energy consumption of different olive harvesting techniques. J. Clean. Prod. 2015, 87,188-196. 

Oleum ex albis ulivis top oil obtained from olives harvested just as the fruit is changing colour, from a deep green to green-yellowish, to dark violet and, finally, to black. 

It has been found that a 5-10% increase in virgin oil yield can be realized by the addition of plant cell-wall degrading enzymes to the malaxer (217). The enzymes are usually added to early harvested (less ripe) olives. Olives harvested later, when they are more ripe, already contain internal enzymes that have the same effect as the added enzymes. Extraction produces three products oil, an aqueous fraction that creates disposal problems, and a solids residue. The solid residue (pumace) obtained from pressing or centrifugation, contains 4-10% oil. The oil can be solvent extracted and refined. Solvent-extracted pumace oil is of low quality and is usually blended with a better quality virgin oil (215, 218). 

Di Giovacchino, L. (1996) Olive harvesting and olive oil extraction, in Olive Oil (ed D. Boskou), AOCS Press, Champaign, II, pp. 12—51. 

Gharsallaoui, M., Benincasa, C., Ayadi, M., Perri, E., Khlif, M., and Gabsi, S. (2011). Study on the impact of wastewater irrigation on the quality of oils obtained from olives harvested by hand and from the groimd and extracted at different times after the harvesting. Scientia Horticulturae, 128, 23-29. 

Tissue slices prepared from the pulp of olives harvested 20 WAF were incubated in a buffered solution (50 mM potassium phosphate, pH 6.0, 0.5% ascorbate) containing 1.7 mM C-bicarbonate (12 Ci/mol). Incubations were carried out at 30°C for three hours. After incubation lipids were thoroughly extracted according to Kara and Radin (1978) the tissue was succesively extrated three times with hexane-isopropanol (3 2) and the extracts combined the tissue remains were then extracted with a volume of 0.5 M sodium sulfate equal to half the volume of the combined lipid, extract, and this aqueous extract was then... 

More than 90% of the world s olive harvest comes from the Mediterranean region, primarily in Italy and Spain (cf Table 14.0). Olive tree plantations are found to a smaller extent in Japan, Australia, California and South America. 

Fantozzi et al. [73] presents the study of the carbon footprint of a typical food product in Central Italy truffle sauce. This is a mixture of vegetable oil and truffle in proportions of 33% and 67% respectively and minor components and spices (garlic, salt, pepper, etc.). Both truffles and olives are cultivated and harvested in a farm in Umbria (Italy). Olives are crushed in a mill that is situated few kilometers from the farm. Once it has been produced, the extra virgin oil, together with the truffle, is transported to another facility to produce bottled truffle sauce. The carbon footprint calculation is based on ISO 14076 technical standard. Product Category Rules (PCR) have been developed (see Table 7). 

In summary, there is little reason to be concerned about allelopathy in mixed plantations where walnut is grown for timber as the harvested crop. Allelopathy does appear to be a factor to consider before planting European alder as a nurse crop with black walnut. Black walnut has had no apparent effect on the autumn-olive but is probably responsible for the decline and mortality of the European alder. These results present interesting possibilities for future research on the plant/soil/microbial relationships related to the metabolism of aromatics. 

In contrast to LHCI, the light-harvesting chlorophyll a/b-antennae complex of photosystem II (LHCII) is the major component of the particles on the complementary protoplasmic fracture face of appressed membranes (PFs) (Simpson, 1979, Olive et al., 1979), and does not appear to be a significant component of the reaction centre EFs particles, although this is disputed. The LHCII in PFs particles is, nevertheless, in contact with the reaction centre particles and may provide a pathway for excitation energy transfer between several photosystem II reaction centres. 

Figure 7.1 Authentication of monovarietal virgin olive oils results of applying clustering analysis to volatile compounds. The Mahattan (city block) distance metric and Ward s amalgamation methods were used in (a) the Squared Euclidean distance and (b) complete linkage amalgamation methods. Note A, cv. Arbequina (6) C, cv. Coratina (6) K, cv. Koroneiki (6) P, cv. Picual (6) 1, harvest 1991 2, harvest 1992. Olives were harvested at three levels of maturity (unripe, normal, overripe) (source SEXIA Group-Instituto de la Grasa, Seville, Spain).

The annual capacity of the extraction unit was fixed in 10 kton of virgin olive oil with an average composition in free fatty acids of 4 wt%. Although this composition may change with the harvesting year it was taken as a mean value for the intake oil. The extraction process is intended to reduce the residual concentration of FFA to a value less than 0.7 wt%. 

Initially, olives were harvested by beating the trees with flails (6). After harvesting, the olives were drenched in hot water and pressed to extract the oil. The oil was separated from the water in a vat from which the water was drawn off, and then stored in jars similar to those used to hold wine. Oil was used locally for lighting, hygienic purposes (to clean the body), and as food, especially for cooking. Mycenaen documents suggest that scented olive oil was used for religious purposes and as a body ointment for the rich (8). 

The malonyl derivative 646 plays an important role in the metabolism of 6 (e.g. Refs 715-719). Possible applications of 6 or other ethylene producing reagents such as plant growth regulators (e.g. Refs 318, 720-725), in the facilitation of the falling and harvesting of olives 26 Qj. further fields 37 described in review Ref. 709. 

A broad variability in the composition of virgin olive oil is generally acknowledged. Surveys were performed on genotypes, climate, agricultural techniques and post -harvest technology (extraction and oil conservation). 

Time interval between harvest and oil processing negatively affects the phenol content [32]. Storage, even at low temperature is also detrimental to the quality of oil since chilling causes injury to olives and deterioration occurs due to fungal growth [34]. 

Ethephon has received the most attention for use in loosening fruit as an aid to mechanical harvesting. Various degrees of success have been obtained using ethephon on olives (78, 79, 80), blueberries 81), cherries 82-86), plums (87), peaches (88, 89), and apples (90, 91, 92, 93). The initial visible fruit response is an increase in coloration, but higher concentrations do result in abscission of the fruit. 

Cycloheximide (CHI), when applied directly to separation zones, will inhibit abscission of citrus fruit explants 24) as it does bean petiole explants (29). By application to citrus fruit surfaces, the rind is injured, evidenced as small pitted areas, and ethylene is produced in quantities that accelerate the abscission processes (41). Apparently, CHI applied to the fruit wall enhances the senescence processes, including ethylene production, thereby stimulating citrus fruit abscission via ethylene production and not by action directly on the tissues in the separation zone (41). Cycloheximide has also been used for harvest of olives (80, 103) and apples (104). 

---