Molecularity, definition

In 1877, the Austrian physicist Ludwig Boltzmann proposed a molecular definition of entropy that enables us to calculate the absolute entropy at any temperature (Fig. 7.6). His formula provided a way of calculating the entropy when measurements could not be made and deepened our insight into the meaning of entropy at the molecular level. The Boltzmann formula for the entropy is... 

In Science, every concept, question, conclusion, experimental result, method, theory or relationship is always open to reexamination. Molecules do exist Nevertheless, there are serious questions about precise definition. Some of these questions lie at the foundations of modem physics, and some involve states of aggregation or extreme conditions such as intense radiation fields or the region of the continuum. There are some molecular properties that are definable only within limits, for example, the geometrical stmcture of non-rigid molecules, properties consistent with the uncertainty principle, or those limited by the negleet of quantum-field, relativistic or other effects. And there are properties which depend specifically on a state of aggregation, such as superconductivity, ferroelectric (and anti), ferromagnetic (and anti), superfluidity, excitons. polarons, etc. Thus, any molecular definition may need to be extended in a more complex situation. 

The introduction of organometaUic ligands as stabilizers by Schmid et al. in 1981 [48] and Vargaftik et al. in 1985 [49] paved the way for the precise molecular definition of metallic full shell clusters, which are well defined in size and shape [58,59]. P, N, S donors have been exploited extensively over the years (cf. Sections 3.1 and 3.2) [60,61]. 

Kockerling, M. and Henkel, G. (1993) Mononuclear nickel thiolate complexes containing nickel sites in different oxidation states - molecular definition of [Ni(SCgH40)2] and [Ni(SCgH40)2]-, Chem. Ber., 126, 951-3. 

However, in this formulation, G /8 is simply a fitted parameter, since there is no rigorous molecular definition for this form of the interfacial energy. In addition, this model suffers the same problem as do other continuum models, in that it contains parameters that must be determined from experimental data and that cannot be estimated a priori from molecular techniques. 

The silica-supported chromate can be activated directly to a very efficient ethylene polymerization catalyst by ethylene itself or by reduction under CO, to yield active Cr(ll) bisiloxy species, ](=SiO)2Cr] [8]. While the silsesquioxane Cr derivative on its own does not lead to an active polymerization catalyst under ethylene (albeit only low ethylene pressure were tested), the silsesquioxane chromate ester can yield an active polymerization catalyst by addition of methyl-aluminoxane as co-catalyst. Comparison between the two catalytic systems is therefore possible but suffers from the lack of molecular definition of the active homogeneous species obtained after activation with the alkylating agent (Scheme 14.11). 

Bailey CH, Bartsch D, Kandel ER. Toward a molecular definition of long-term memory storage. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1996 93 13,445-13,452. 

Seeds AM, Bastidas RJ, York JD. Molecular definition of a novel... 

Reiss has introduced a notation for combining the four microscopic variants of WRBS with field definitions defined by the m value. It might be preferable to keep the macroscopic adjustments separate from the molecular definitions. The question of the definition of the fields is related to the nature of the EFISH measurement. The essential observation is of the ratio between the intensity of second harmonic light emitted from the solution to that emitted by quartz standard. However the or-field is defined the ratio will be related to T by an equation (written schematically) of the kind,... 

An accurate molecular definition of cephalosporin allergy is not currently available. Relevant determinants of cephalosporin-induced anaphylaxis may not reside in the bicyclic core, but rather in the side chain (164,165). 

Lackner C, Cohen JC, Hobbs HH. Molecular definition of the extreme size polymorphism in apolipoprotein(a). Hum Mol Genet 1993 2 933-40. 

Shipitsin, M., Campbell, L. L., Argani, P., et al. (2007) Molecular definition of breast tumor heterogeneity. Cancer Cell 11, 259-273. 

Reifenberger G, Louis DN. Oligodendroglioma Toward molecular definitions in diagnostic neuto-oncology. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 2003 62 111-126. 

A.J. (2004) Molecular definition of predictive indicators of stable protein expression in recombinant NSO myeloma cells. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 85 115-121. 

Jefferis, R., Lund, J., Pound, J.D. IgG-Fc-mediated effector functions molecular definition of interaction sites for effector ligands and the role of glycosylation. Immunol. Rev. 1998, 163, 59-76. 

Scharbert, S. and Hofmann, T. 2005. Molecular definition of black tea taste by means of quantitative studies, taste reconstitution, and omission experiments. J. Agric. Food Chem. 53 5377-84. 

Many molecular definitions of a gene relate to their role in directing the production of specific proteins. Production of protein itself is made possible via certain enzymes known as polymerases. Various DNAs and RNAs could not be produced without these polymerases and therefore they are of primary importance. Numerous other enzymes are produced that control metabolic and catabolic processes (enzymatically), provide structural components, and perform regulatory functions in cells. 

In this section we shall briefly review the thermodynamic description of chemical lasers. The analysis will be based on the fundamental laws of thermodynamics and the statistical-molecular definitions of entropy and energy. The approach outUned below does not intend to yield new detailed results, these have been supplied adequately in the kinetic analyses. On the contrary, it attempts to compact the detailed data by focusing attention on a few macroscopically significant observables, and by applying general thermodynamic relationships to shed a different light on the phenomena described in the previous sections. 

Interferons (IFN) are a class of related cytokines with multiple activities. They are grouped in three major categories, namely IFN-a, IFN- 8, and IFN-y, according to their different cellular origin. Besides their historically described antiviral activities, they are also known to possess immunomodulatory and cell-proliferative potential [32]. The nomenclature of the various IFNs in the past was chaotic and has changed over time. It is very difficult to relate descriptions in old papers or patents to the actual molecular definitions. Besides some antitumour applications, two widely used IFN therapies have been successfully established. These therapies are (1) IFN-a for the treatment of chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infections and (2) IFN- 8 for the treatment of multiple sclerosis (MS). These two applications are highly attractive for generic companies and the products should be discussed in more detail. 

The introduction of ligands as NP stabilizers is of special interest, because it focuses on the precise molecular definition of the catalytic materials. In principle, this strategy potentially allows a good control of the molecular modulation in order to optimize the parameters that govern the efEciency in catalytic reactions, including enantioselective ones. 

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