Milestones in development

Table 2.1 Milestones in development of chemical and biochemical sensors...

In Japan an important milestone in development of gas-cooled reactors was reached in March 1991 with the start of construction of the High Temperature Engineering Test Reactor (HTTR) at the Oarai Research Establishment of the Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute (JAERI). This 30... 

The invention of the ultracentrifuge was one of the milestones in development of polymer science and technology. The basic principle of this device is illustrated by observing a small sphere moving through a Newtonian liquid under the action of gravity as shown in the Fig. 4.48. 

The development of malathion in 1950 was an important milestone in the emergence of selective insecticides. Malathion is from one-half to one-twentieth as toxic to insects as parathion but is only about one two-hundredths as toxic to mammals. Its worldwide usage in quantities of thousands of metric tons in the home, garden, field, orchard, woodland, on animals, and in pubHc health programs has demonstrated substantial safety coupled with pest control effectiveness. The biochemical basis for the selectivity of malathion is its rapid detoxication in the mammalian Hver, but not in the insect, through the attack of carboxyesterase enzymes on the aUphatic ester moieties of the molecule. 

Table 1. Recent Milestones in the Development of Primary Patent Literature...

Even the most complicated aspects of thermodynamics are based ultimately on three rather simple and straightforward laws. These laws and their extensions sometimes run counter to our intuition. However, once truly understood, the basic principles of thermodynamics become powerful devices for sorting out complicated chemical and biochemical problems. At this milestone in our scientific development, thermodynamic thinking becomes an enjoyable and satisfying activity. 

The basis of the Diels-Alder reaction developed in the twenties, and the contribution by Woodward and Hoffmann in the sixties, are two very important milestones in chemistry. Both discoveries were met with widespread interest the applications made are fundamental to modern society the tests which it has survived and the corollary predictions which have been verified are impressive. 

Although fuel cells were invented over 150 years ago. Figure 1 reveals that there have been only a few key milestones in fuel cell development. For this reason they have only recently attracted significant and... 

The polymer-solvent interaction parameter, which is a key constant defining the physical chemistry of every polymer in a solvent, can be obtained from electrochemical experiments. Definition and inclusion of this interaction was a milestone in the development of polymer science at the beginning of the 1950s. We hope that Eq. 47 will have similar influence in the development of all the cross-interactions of electrochemistry and polymer science by the use of the ESCR model. A second point is that Eq. 47 provides us with an efficient tool to obtain this constant in electroactive... 

Figure 2.8 Milestones in the development of regulatory oversight of drugs and devices in the USA.

This project was slightly unusual, in that the success and ROI criteria were investigated and developed ahead of the rest of the project. This led to a project that had clear goals and milestones in terms of usability and performance, set out ahead of any review of available solutions. In addition, the project had measurable criteria for the impact that the system was having on the efficiency of the drug discovery process. These criteria were then also used to establish go/no-go criteria for the implementation project. 

In Figure 4.3, the major milestones in dmg regulatory development in the 10 countries are presented as a time-scale, to illustrate discrete development versus continuous development of dmg regulation. 

This theory was a milestone in the development of acid-base concepts it was the first to define acids and bases in terms other than that of a reaction between them and the first to give quantitative descriptions. However, the theory of Arrhenius is far more narrow than both its predecessors and its successors and, indeed, it is the most restrictive of all acid-base theories. 

This chapter is not a systematic account of the history of electrochemistry, nor does it give detailed descriptions of all the contributions made by numerous scientists who have worked in the field. The main objective of the chapter is to outline the most important milestones in the development of electrochemistry and to show the relationship between the development of electrochemistry and other sciences. At all stages of the development of electrochemistry, an intimate connection existed between the development of theoretical concepts and the discovery of methods for a practical application of electrochemical processes and phenomena. 

The next milestone in the development of organic synthesis was the preparation of the first synthetic dye, mauveine (aniline purple) by Perkin in 1856 Perkin, 1856, 1862). This is generally regarded as the first industrial organic synthesis. It is also a remarkable example of serendipity. Perkin s goal was the synthesis of the antimalarial drug quinine by oxidation of N-allyl toluidine (Fig. 2.4). 

Finally some additional milestones in organization, research and development of RMs need to be mentioned. The large increase in the number of reference materials being produced led in 1975 to the formation of an ISO Council Committee on Reference Materials (ISO-REMCO) charged with the establishment of international guidelines on principles of certification, methods of use, needs, availability and nomenclature (Klich 1999), see also Sections 1.2 and 1.3. 

This book marks the conclusion of this strong period of development and is therefore a milestone in measurement science. As such, the field already has a history. But as history makes no sense without a future, the last Chapter of this book deals with expected further developments in terms of organization and needs. Between history and future the book presents, as a snap shot, the application of standards in analytical chemistry. The perspective of Quality Assurance is never forgotten. 

When surveying the central milestones in the development of electrocatalysis for low temperature fuel cells operating in acidic environments, the following, listed in chronological order, seem to be the most outstanding ... 

Some Milestones in the Development of Surface Chemistry and Catalysis... 

Although introduction of FAB was a milestone in the development of mass-spectrometric ionisation techniques solving many biochemical-related problems, and was and still is a popular technique to use, it appears to be declining since the advent of electrospray. 

In its continuing effort to improve the safety and efficacy of drugs in the pediatric population, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has defined five subgroups of this population based on age. Each subgroup is not homogeneous but does contain similar characteristics that are considered milestones in growth in development. The FDA classifications are listed in Table 1. 

---