Meteorological measurements

There are several primary meteorological measurements necessary in assessing atmospheric transport and mixing characteristics as related to the dispersion of material in the atmosphere. Those related to the wind are  

Surface wind direction is measured by a wind vane, essentially a flat plate on a horizontal rod that aligns itself with the wind direction. Wind direction aloft is determined by pilot balloons (less than 1 m in diameter, equipped to carry a small radio for tracking) and tetroons (a constant-volume balloon in the shape of a tetrahedron, which is ballasted so as to remain at a nearly constant elevation). 

Surface wind speed is recorded by a class of instruments called anemometers. Typical anemometers are  

Cup anemometer three conical cups on a freely rotating vertical shaft. 

Hot-wire anemometer an electrically heated element the temperature of which is related to the velocity of the passing wind. 

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Gryning, S. E., and Lyck, E., "Comparison between Dispersion Calculation Methods Based on In-Situ Meteorological Measurements and Results from Elevated- Source Tracer Experiments in an Urban Area." National Agency of Environmental Protection, Air Pollution Laboratory, MST Luft - A40. Riso National Laboratory, Denmark, 1980. 

Lockhart, T. J., "Quality Assurance Handbook for Air Pollution Measurement Systems," Vol. IV, "Meteorological Measurements." U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, 1989. 

Meyers TP, Finkelstein P, Clarke J, Ellestad T, Sims PF. 1998. A multilayer model for inferring dry deposition using standard meteorological measurements. J Geophys Res 103 22645-22661. 

The invention of the thermometer is generally credited to Galileo. His instrument, built near the end of the sixteenth century, relied on the expansion of air with an increase of heat. Traditional liquid-in-glass thermometers were devised in the 1630s and are standard equipment today in research settings, medical practice, and meteorological measurement. 

Receptor models are used to determine the source contributions to ambient particulate matter loadings at a sampling site based on common properties between source and receptor. This is in contrast to a source model which starts with emission rates and meteorological measurements to predict an ambient concentration. 

Figure 2. The temperature and pressure distribution of the stratosphere. The solid line is from reference 7, and the dashed lines are from measurements made by the Meteorological Measurement System (MMS) instrument on the NASA ER-2 high-altitude aircraft during the AAOE mission in 1987 (8) and the AASE mission in 1989 (9). The Arctic was colder in 1989 than usual.

For wet and dry deposition, these studies typically include measurement of concentration levels of key chemical components as well as precipitation amounts. For dry deposition, analyses also must include meteorological measurements that are used to estimate rate of the actual deposition, or flux. 5 Data representing total deposition loadings (e.g.. total sulfate or nitrate) are what many environmental scientists use for integrated ecological assessments,... 

High Altitude Gun Probe Systems for Meteorological Measurements , The Meteorological Rocket Network, IRIG Document 111-64, (Feb 1965), pp 211-21 8) G.V. Bull, D. 

I had a long talk with Jake Nolen. I pointed out that in the fall we had taken micro-meteorological measurements in the meadow and in the forest, but the measurements in the forest were not meaningful since the observations... 

Late in the war, a group tested the dispersion of DDT as an aerosol in the meadows and especially in the forest. We made day and night micro-meteorological measurements for them. 

In the spring of 1945, Captain Jake Nolen told me that a group from Bushnell was to carry out some special studies on a beach in south Florida. He suggested, and I agreed that I go to carry out basic meteorological measurements. Arthur Pardee was to work on a special project, members of NDRC Division 9 were to make measurements of mustard, and some army officers and enlisted men would be there to handle munitions and other matters. 

We returned at the end of a full day s work. At dinner that night, an officer told me that the high officer had examined the site and found no need for meteorological measurements. The next day three soldiers and I took a small fast boat to Key West, and we went back to Bushnell in a six passenger weapon carrier. 

Nowadays, one applies mainly sonic anemometers in meteorological measurements, [186],... 

From an engineering point of view, the spraying cooling system (SCS) is determined by two groups of factors. Environmental factors determined by meteorological measurements include... 

UAP models in operational UAQIFSs, as a rule, still use simple in-situ meteorological measurements which are fed into meteorological pre-processors (see Figure 9.1). Lacking an adequate description of physical phenomena and the complex data assimilation and parameterisations of numerical weather prediction (NWP) models, these pre-processors do not achieve the potential of NWP models in providing all the meteorological fields needed by modern UAP models to improve the UAQ forecasts. 

Meteorological measurements and predictions provide the foundation of any successful method for assessing the consequences of biological or chemical agent... 

Hopefully, this work will encourage further research on how to capitalize state-of-the-art modeling techniques and high-frequency meteorological measurements to improve our real-time ability in response to atmospheric releases of hazardous materials from an industrial accident or terrorist act. An urgent and challenging issue that needs to be addressed is diffusion model validation. Without comprehensive validation, even a well-designed prediction system cannot be accepted for operational application. 

Allwine, K.J. and Flaherty, J.E., 2006. Urban Dispersion Program MSG05 Field Study Summary of Tracer and Meteorological Measurements. PNNL-15969, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. 

The results from lengthy exposure periods are of course more relevant for practical purposes e.g. for classification of the corrosivity of atmosphere on a given location or for cost-benefit analysis. In this case the corrosion rate may be assessed from yearly mean values of the concentration of pollutants and from the time-of-wetness class estimated from meteorological measurements. 

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