Measures waste

Typically, 40—50% of the carbon atoms ia lignite are ia aromatic stmctures while 60—70% of the carbon atoms ia Illinois bituminous coal are ia aromatic stmctures (7,8). By all of these measures, waste fuels are significantly more reactive than coal, peat, and other combustible soHds. 

Measuring waste generated and released. Virtually every environmental issue is related to the generation of waste. Therefore, quantities of waste generated over time are good environmental performance measures. 

The various improvements in synthesis of sildenafil (13.73) in a previous section of this chapter have been analyzed by their E-factors (Table 13.5). Note that in this analysis, E-factors are reported in L waste per kg product. Most waste consists of solvents and aqueous solutions, so measuring waste in volume is convenient. Like most med chem routes, the original synthesis of sildenafil was inefficient and intended only for quick synthesis. Within four years, the med chem route had been optimized in terms of its E-factor by over an order of magnitude. Further improvements dropped the E-factor down to 22 L/kg. Implementation of recovering solvents from the waste stream reduced the E-factor to just 7 L/kg. Such a low E-factor is more typical of a bulk or... 

Measuring wastes some resources, and the concept of cost-opportunity makes us cautious when tempted to measure whatever is at hand. We should measure little, and just what is critical (even monitoring and... 

Waste water prevention and treatment In many cases, waste water can be prevented or minimised by taking in-process measures. Waste water that cannot be prevented, will contain mineral or metal dust, amines, suphates, oil or lubricants, depending on its source within the process. The applicable treatment techniques differ for each of these compounds. 

A further obstacle to the development of sustainable landfilling practices is the reliance on a strict waste management hierarchy (Qiapter 1), diat places landfill as a last resort measure. Waste mimimisation and recycling should, under most circumstances, remain the preferred waste management options, but once these possibilities have been exhausted, the choice of treatment/disposal route should be on the basis of the Best Practicable Environmental Option. This will equate with the most sustainable option. LandflU will almost certainly constitute BPEO for some waste streams, and for these wastes, landfill should be used as the preferred management option. 

Several key parameters are calculated in quantifying green chanistry. As discussed in Section 14.9, one of these is atom economy, defined as the fraction of reactant material that actually ends up in the final product. The higher the atom economy—ideally 100%—the greener the process. Other important parameters include the E factor, which measures wastes (Section 14.9), and oxygen and hydrogen availability (Section 14.14). 

Also, the detector can be used to measure waste for the presence of transuranic material in the presence of high gamma-ray backgroxmd. A test with a neutron source (3x10 n/s) in a vehicle showed that the detector could readily measure an increase in count rate at a distance of 10 m for vehicle speeds up to 35 mph (the highest speed tested). These results.indicate that the source should be detectable at this distance at speeds up to 55 mph. 

Raw materials costs dominate the operating costs of most processes (see App. A). Also, if raw materials are not used efficiently, this creates waste, which then becomes an environmental problem. It is therefore important to have a measure of the efficiency of raw materials use. The process yield is defined as... 

Each of these measures can, in the appropriate circumstances, minimize waste (see Fig. 2.10). 

Clearly, some of these measures to reduce waste in process operations—such as design for low process inventory—can be taken into consideration at the early stages of design, but many cannot. We should be aware of the problem and do whatever we can in the early stages to prevent problems later. 

The process is designed from a knowledge of physical concentrations, whereas aqueous effluent treatment systems are designed from a knowledge of BOD and COD. Thus we need to somehow establish the relationship between BOD, COD, and the concentration of waste streams leaving the process. Without measurements, relationships can only be established approximately. The relationship between BOD and COD is not easy to establish, since different materials will oxidize at different rates. To compound the problem, many wastes contain complex mixtures of oxidizable materials, perhaps together with chemicals that inhibit the oxidation reactions. 

In Chap. 10, modification of the process for reducing process waste was considered in detail. It also was concluded that to minimize utility waste, the single most effective measure would be improved heat recovery. The energy-targeting methods presented in Chaps. 6 and 7 maximize heat recovery for a given set of process conditions. However, the process conditions can be changed to improve the heat recovery further. 

Exploding or burning the gas with oxygen or air and measuring both the change in volume and amount of waste gases formed by absorption. 

Selectivity in FIA is often better than that for conventional methods of analysis. In many cases this is due to the kinetic nature of the measurement process, in which potential interferents may react more slowly than the analyte. Contamination from external sources also is less of a problem since reagents are stored in closed reservoirs and are pumped through a system of transport tubing that, except for waste lines, is closed to the environment. 

Plutonium (Pu) is an artificial element of atomic number 94 that has its main radioactive isotopes at 2 °Pu and Pu. The major sources of this element arise from the manufacture and detonation of nuclear weapons and from nuclear reactors. The fallout from detonations and discharges of nuclear waste are the major sources of plutonium contamination of the environment, where it is trapped in soils and plant or animal life. Since the contamination levels are generally very low, a sensitive technique is needed to estimate its concentration. However, not only the total amount can be estimated. Measurement of the isotope ratio provides information about its likely... 

Chemical Composition. Chemical compositional data iaclude proximate and ultimate analyses, measures of aromaticity and reactivity, elemental composition of ash, and trace metal compositions of fuel and ash. All of these characteristics impact the combustion processes associated with wastes as fuels. Table 4 presents an analysis of a variety of wood-waste fuels these energy sources have modest energy contents. 

Fouling of the pH sensor may occur in solutions containing surface-active constituents that coat the electrode surface and may result in sluggish response and drift of the pH reading. Prolonged measurements in blood, sludges, and various industrial process materials and wastes can cause such drift. Therefore, it is necessary to clean the membrane mechanically or chemically at intervals that are consistent with the magnitude of the effect and the precision of the results requited. 

Control Systems. Control systems are used to regulate the addition of Hquid waste feed, auxiHary fuel, and combustion air flows to the incinerator furnace. In addition, scmbber operation is automated to help ensure meeting emission limits. Flows are measured using differential pressure... 

The overall requirement is 1.0—2.0 s for low energy waste compared to typical design standards of 2.0 s for RCRA ha2ardous waste units. The most important, ie, rate limiting steps are droplet evaporation and chemical reaction. The calculated time requirements for these steps are only approximations and subject to error. For example, formation of a skin on the evaporating droplet may inhibit evaporation compared to the theory, whereas secondary atomization may accelerate it. Errors in estimates of the activation energy can significantly alter the chemical reaction rate constant, and the pre-exponential factor from equation 36 is only approximate. Also, interactions with free-radical species may accelerate the rate of chemical reaction over that estimated solely as a result of thermal excitation therefore, measurements of the time requirements are desirable. 

Chemical Reaction Measurements. Experimental studies of incineration kinetics have been described (37—39), where the waste species is generally introduced as a gas in a large excess of oxidant so that the oxidant concentration is constant, and the heat of reaction is negligible compared to the heat flux required to maintain the reacting mixture at temperature. The reaction is conducted in an externally heated reactor so that the temperature can be controlled to a known value and both oxidant concentration and temperature can be easily varied. The experimental reactor is generally a long tube of small diameter so that the residence time is well defined and axial dispersion may be neglected as a source of variation. Off-gas analysis is used to track both the disappearance of the feed material and the appearance and disappearance of any products of incomplete combustion. 

In electrogalvanizing, copper foil, and other oxygen-evolving appHcations, the greatest environmental contribution has been the elimination of lead-contaminated waste streams through replacement of the lead anode. In addition, the dimensionally stable characteristic of the metal anode iatroduces greater consistency and simplification of the process, thus creating a measure of predictabiUty, and a resultant iacreased level of safety. 

The Natural Reactor. Some two biUion years ago, uranium had a much higher (ca 3%) fraction of U than that of modem times (0.7%). There is a difference in half-hves of the two principal uranium isotopes, U having a half-life of 7.08 x 10 yr and U 4.43 x 10 yr. A natural reactor existed, long before the dinosaurs were extinct and before humans appeared on the earth, in the African state of Gabon, near Oklo. Conditions were favorable for a neutron chain reaction involving only uranium and water. Evidence that this process continued intermittently over thousands of years is provided by concentration measurements of fission products and plutonium isotopes. Usehil information about retention or migration of radioactive wastes can be gleaned from studies of this natural reactor and its products (12). 

---