Market pricing/competition

In the fuel cell hydrogen is used two to three times as efficiendy as in an internal combustion engine. Hence, when utilized in a fuel cell, hydrogen can cost two to three times that of more conventional fossil fuels and stiU be competitively priced, ie, as of this writing the market price for hydrogen when used in a fuel cell and produced by electrolysis is competitively priced with gasoline. 

Other expansions of FDA s authority include the Dmg Price Competition and Patent Term Restoration Act of 1984, commonly known as the 1984 Amendments or the Waxman-Hatch Act, which was passed to attain quicker marketing of safe, effective, and less expensive generic dmgs and the Safe Medical Device Amendments of 1990, which was passed to correct perceived weaknesses in the implementation of the 1976 Device Amendments. Congress further expanded FDA authority over nutrition labeling and health and nutrient content claims on food labels with the Nutrition Labeling and Education Act of 1990. 

There have been some attempts to develop chlorinated polyethylene elastomers. The rubbers possess such attractive properties as very good oil, heat, flame, ozone, and weathering resistance and are also available in a convenient powder form. In spite of being marketed at competitive prices, the chlorinated polyethylene rubbers (designated as CM rubbers by ASTM) took... 

In these restructured electric markets, prices will be determined more by market forces and less by regulatory proceedings. To some, introducing competition will promote more efficient markets, providing the proper financial incentives for firms to enter or leave the industiy. In this way, consumers will benefit from lower production costs and, hcncc, reduced electricity prices. To others, restructuring will increase electricity prices for some customers, sacrifice the current environmental and social benefits, and jeopardize system reliability of the status quo. 

London auction prices for tea in 1995 reflect the lowest price per pound since 1975 at 74.5 cents.23 Lower market prices of tea are primarily due to the reduced quality of tea and record production prices for tea were 83.7 cents per pound in 1991, down 8.5 cents from the previous year. The highest price was recorded in 1984 ( 1.56 per pound), which has since fallen to the recent levels. Trade in imports and exports of tea (bag and instant) in the U.S. has been growing since 1990. While iced tea products are increasingly popular in the U.S., they are in direct competition with soft drinks which tend to dominate the cold beverage market. 

Reference pricing was not introduced in Spain until December 2000. The fact that it is applied exclusively to bio-equivalent products leads, in the opinion of the authors, to the assumption that its effect on expenditure is limited, as a major market share is acquired by recently introduced drugs. The level at which the reference price is fixed is an important factor. For non-patented products, price competition should push the price towards the marginal cost, and therefore a reference price that is clearly higher than the cheapest generic could actually become a barrier to price competition in this case. 

Wiggins, S.N. and R. Maness (1994), Price competition in pharmaceutical markets , unpublished document, Texas A M University. 

Mechanisms to encourage price competition in the pharmaceutical market and their effects on efficiency and welfare... 

In the following section of this chapter we analyse the various types of market structure that occur in the case of pharmaceuticals, and we review the different factors that can limit the functioning of price competition in this market on both the supply side and the demand side. Finally, we analyse possible forms of intervention, in particular mechanisms to encourage price competition in pharmaceutical markets, and discuss the extent to which they might improve efficiency and social welfare. 

The analysis showed, with various "value adders" (e.g., oxygen sales and carbon-emission-offset credits), the cost of wind-source gaseous hydrogen delivered by pipelines from production point to distant markets (about 200-1000 mi.) at an untaxed wholesale energy unit cost will be competitive with market prices (in 2005) of gasoline and hydrogen fuel made from natural gas by steam methane reforms (SMRs). 

Price-quantity functions reflect the negative correlation between market prices and sales quantity. In perfect competition, high market prices correlates with low demand quantities. A single supplier cannot influence the... 

Some empirical research also includes a variable assumed to reflect the size of the country or its domestic market. The results are not uniform for countries and branches, but two studies identify a significant correlation between scale and trade performance for the car industry, among others (Fagerberg, 1995 Soete, 1981). With regard to the importance of price competition, the evidence is less clear cut. As might be expected, price competition seems to be important in many low-tech industries (e.g., textiles and clothes). The investment variable measured per worker fails to have a significant impact in all but a few cases. 

The alternative fuels and drive systems available only seem to be viable on the mass market, if the oil price stays above 60 to 70 /bbl for a sustained period. Oil prices peaked above 140 /bbl in summer 2008 and many experts believe that stable oil prices over 100 /bbl could be reached in the next one or two decades. The higher the market prices of fossil fuels, the more competitive low-carbon alternatives will become The principal choice here is between biofuels, electricity and hydrogen, provided that they are produced either from low/zero-carbon feedstock or that the C02 generated during their production is captured and stored. But higher priced conventional oil resources, on the other hand, can also be replaced by high-carbon alternatives such as oil sands, oil shale or synthetic fuels from coal and gas. 

The present chapter focuses on process options integrated in a biorefinery scheme that should yield bio-products at a more competitive market price and quality. Although bioconversions are essential steps to derive the platform molecules that are used subsequently for catalytic transformations, only chemo-catalytic process will be examined. Selected examples of catalytic conversions illustrating different process options will be given. 

Market and actors In Germany approximately 32 m. tons of cement are manufactured, of which about 16% are processed manually, 31% are used in factory manufacture of concrete parts and 53% are used in the manufacture of ready-mixed concrete. Around 5.5 m. tons are imported. The cement industry operates in a Fordist stmctured market for mass products (lengthy product cycles, dominated by price competition) with trends towards monopolies. Raw materials suppliers and downstream businesses (e.g. cement transportation enterprises) are also being controlled increasingly by the cement manufacturers. 

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