Liquid foundation

The first liquid foundations were known as neck and arm whiteners. They were developed for use in the theater and were early attempts to improve the characteristics of applied face powder. Early pharmaceutical methods used to develop improved foundations included combinations of calamine lotion, zinc oxide, glycerin, and water. Until the 1940s, foundations were in the form of nonflowing and very greasy pastes and creams (often called grease paint ). The cosmetic industry soon thereafter used different types of emulsifiers and thickeners combined with... 

Polymers and polyelectrolytes, both of the natural and synthetic, are commonly used in most personal care and cosmetic formulations. These materials are used as thickening agents, film formers, resinous powder and humectants. For example, thickening agents, sometimes referred to as rheology modifiers, are used in many hand creams, lotions, liquid foundations and hair sprays to maintain the product stability... 

As an alternative to pressed powders, liquid foundations have attracted special attention in recent years. Most foundation make-ups are made of O/W or W/0 emulsions in which the pigments are dispersed either in the aqueous or the oil phase. These are complex systems consisting of a suspension/emulsion (suspoe-mulsion) formulation. Special attention should be paid to the stability of the emulsion (absence of flocculation or coalescence) and suspension (absence of flocculation). This is achieved by using specialised surfactant systems such silicone polyols or block copolymers of poly(ethylene oxide) and poly(propylene oxide). Some thickeners may be also added to control the consistency (rheology) of the formulation. 

Liquid foundations are, quite clearly, a challenge to the formulation chemist due to both the numerous components used and the interaction between them. Particular attention should be made to the interaction between the emulsion droplets and pigment particles (a phenomenon referred to as heteroflocculation), which may have adverse effects of the final property of the deposited film on the skin. 

As an alternative to pressed powders, liquid foundations have attracted special attention in recent years. Most of the foundation make-ups are made of 0/W or... 

D. O. Shah and W. C. Hsieh, Microemulsions, Liquid Crystals and Enhanced Oil Recovery, in Theory, Practice, and Process Principles for Physical Separations, Engineering Foundation, New York, 1977. 

S. Blenk, H. Ehrentraut, W. Muschik. Statistical foundation of macroscopic balances for liquid crystals in alignment tensor formulation. Physica A 77 119-138, 1991. 

Thus, the BLEVE theory predicts that, when the temperature of a superheated liquid is below T, liquid flashing cannot give rise to a blast wave. This theory is based on the solid foundations of kinetic gas theory and experimental observations of homogeneous nucleation boiling. It is also supported by the experiments of BASF and British Gas. However, because no systematic study has been conducted, there is no proof that the process described actually governs the type of flashing that causes strong blast waves. Furthermore, rapid vaporization of a superheated liquid below its superheat limit temperature can also produce a blast wave, albeit a weak... 

Preparation of N-alkoxyalkylimidazolium salts and ionic liquids or gels containing them 1 -Methyl- 3-methoxyethyl imidazolium bromide Foundation for Scientific Technology Promotion, Japan 2002 21... 

All currents that had to be measured were sent to a central measurement room in which many mirror galvanometers were situated on top of vibration-free columns that were separated from the foundations of the building. One should realize that the many announcements in the early literature of the liquefaction of specific gases pertained to not much more than a mist or a few drops Kamerlingh Onnes planned to make liquid gases by the gallon. A separate hydrogen liquefaction plant was located in a special room with a roof that could be blown off easily. 

The foundation of modern hydraulics was established with Pascal s discovery that pressure in a fluid acts equally in all directions. This pressure acts at right angles to the containing surfaces. If some type of pressure gauge, with an exposed face, is placed beneath the surface of a liquid. Figure 40.4, at a specific depth and pointed in different directions, the pressure will read the same. Thus, we can say that pressure in a liquid is independent of direction. 

The initial set of experiments and the first few textbook chapters lay down a foundation for the course. The elements of scientific activity are immediately displayed, including the role of uncertainty. The atomic theory, the nature of matter in its various phases, and the mole concept are developed. Then an extended section of the course is devoted to the extraction of important chemical principles from relevant laboratory experience. The principles considered include energy, rate and equilibrium characteristics of chemical reactions, chemical periodicity, and chemical bonding in gases, liquids, and solids. The course concludes with several chapters of descriptive chemistry in which the applicability and worth of the chemical principles developed earlier are seen again and again. 

Plastics provide different performance requirement in providing protective liners in many different applications such as building foundations, pipe and tank liners containing corrosive liquids, etc. As an example Fig. 4-13 shows an RP stack liner being inspected prior to installation in a 682 ft. high reinforced concrete chimney (background) of the 1,500-megawatt Intermountain Power Project near Delta, Utah (1985). 

We now have the foundation for applying thermodynamics to chemical processes. We have defined the potential that moves mass in a chemical process and have developed the criteria for spontaneity and for equilibrium in terms of this chemical potential. We have defined fugacity and activity in terms of the chemical potential and have derived the equations for determining the effect of pressure and temperature on the fugacity and activity. Finally, we have introduced the concept of a standard state, have described the usual choices of standard states for pure substances (solids, liquids, or gases) and for components in solution, and have seen how these choices of standard states reduce the activity to pressure in gaseous systems in the limits of low pressure, to concentration (mole fraction or molality) in solutions in the limit of low concentration of solute, and to a value near unity for pure solids or pure liquids at pressures near ambient. 

Chapter I has been reorganized in this edition to give readers a gentler introduction to atoms and their structure. Atoms and molecules, including discussions of quantum mechanics and molecular orbitals, provide the foundation for understanding bulk properties and models of gases, liquids, and solids. 

Apart from obvious features such as laminarity, there are speculations that flows in micro channels exhibit a behavior deviating from predictions of macroscopic continuum theory. In the case of gas flows, these deviations, manifesting themselves as, e.g., velocity slip at solid surfaces, are comparatively well understood (for an overview, see [130]). However, for liquid flows on a length scale above 1 pm, there is no clear theoretical foundation for deviations from continuum behavior. Nevertheless, various unexpected phenomena such as friction factors deviating from the continuum prediction [131-133] have been reported. A more detailed discussion of this still unsettled matter is given in Section 2.2. At any rate, one has to be careful here since it may be that measurements in small systems lack precision, essentially because of the incompatibility of analysis in a confined space and with large measuring equipment... 

The theoretical foundation for describing critical phenomena in confined systems is the finite-size scaling approach [64], by which the dependence of physical quantities on system size is investigated. On the basis of the Ising Hamiltonian and finite-size scaling theory, Fisher and Nakanishi computed the critical temperature of a fluid confined between parallel plates of distance D [66]. The critical temperature refers to, e.g., a liquid/vapor phase transition. Alternatively, the demixing phase transition of an initially miscible Kquid/Kquid mixture could be considered. Fisher and Nakashini foimd that compared with free space, the critical temperature is shifted by an amoimt... 

Electroosmosis is used to remove liquid (moisture) from different porous solids (e.g., in drying soil for building purposes, which improves the bond between the foundations and the soil). A combination of electrophoresis and electroosmosis is sometimes used to dry peat or clay. In this way, the water content of peat can be reduced from 90% to 55-60%. Unfortunately, the energy required for a further reduction of the water content is very high. 

Section I of this book includes chapters on the principles and practice of PLC. After this introductory Chapter 1, Chapter 2 provides information on efforts undertaken to date in order to establish the theoretical foundations of PLC. With growing availability and popularity of modem computer-aided densitometers, separation results can be obtained in digital form as a series of concentration profiles that can be relatively easily assessed and processed. From these, relevant conclusions can be drawn in exactly the same manner as in automated column chromatographic techniques. Efforts undertaken to build a theoretical foundation of PLC largely consist of adaptation of known strategies (with their validity confirmed in preparative column liquid chromatography) to the working conditions of PLC systems. 

We want to express our gratitude to Prof. Hubert H. Girault of the Laboratoire d Electrochmie of the Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne as well as to Prof. Bernard Testa and Dr. Pierre-Alain Carrupt of the Institut de Chimie Therapeutique of the Universite de Lausanne (Switzerland) for their fruitful collaboration, insightful discussions, and valuable comments on this manuscript. We are also indebted to the Swiss National Science Foundation for its support. Laboratoire d Electrochimie is part of the European Training and Mobility Network on Organization Dynamics and Reactions at Electrified-Liquid Interfaces (ODRELLI). 

IN 1989, A PANEL CONVENED BY THE NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION examined introductory college chemistry courses and concluded that the historic bias of chemistry curricula toward small-molecule chemistry, generally in the gaseous and liquid states, is out of touch with current opportunities for chemists in research, education, and technology (i). Moreover, the report noted that the attractiveness of chemistry and physics for undergraduate majors could be enhanced by greater emphasis on materials-related topics which would help students better relate their studies to the real world. ... 

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