Life-cycle assessment methodology

Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a methodological framework for estimating and assessing the environmental impacts attributable to the life cycle of a product, such as climate change, stratospheric ozone depletion, tropospheric ozone (smog) creation, eutrophication, acidification, toxicological stress on human health and ecosystems, the depletion of resources, water use, land use, noise, and others [3,4]. 

LCA is a usefiil tool for measuring environmental sustainability and identifying environmental performance-improvement objectives [5]. Enviromnental sustainability is about making products that serve usefiil market and societal functions with less environmental impact than cmrently available alternatives. Moreover, environmental sustainabihty necessarily implies a commitment to continuous improvement in environmental performance. The key measurement tool for environmental sustain ility is life cycle assessment. 

LCA is now a widely acknowledged approach to characterize the environmental impact of products and processes, and its methodology has been standardized under the ISO 14040 

The goal definition stage defines the purpose, scope, and boundaries of the study, the functional unit, key assnmptions to be made and likely limitation of the work [10]. The goal and scope definition of an LCA provides a description of the product system in terms of the system boundaries and a functional unit [3]. The functional unit is the important basis that enables alternative goods, or services, to be compared and analysed. Practitioners may compare, for example, alternative types of packaging on the basis of 1 m of packed and delivered product - the service that the product provides. 

Life cycle inventory (LCI) is a methodology for estimating the consumption of resources and the quantities of waste flows and emissions caused or otherwise attributable to a product s life cycle [3]. The inventoiy analysis constitutes a detailed compilation of all of the environmental inputs and outputs to each stage of the life cycle [10]. The inventory usually includes raw material and energy consumed, emissions to air and water, and solid waste produced. The processes within the life cycle and the associated material and energy flows as well as other exchanges are modelled to represent the product system and its total inputs and outputs from and to the natural environment, respectively (Fig. 8.2). This results in a product system model and an inventory of environmental exchanges related to the functional unit. 

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The EPS system was initially developed to be used within the product development process as a tool to help assess the environmental performance of products. The system is based on LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) methodology and uses inventory data (kg of substance A), characterization factors (impact/kg of substance X) and weighting factors (cost/impacts) to calculate the external costs or values of a product. By multiplying the characterization factor with the weighting factor, an impact index is obtained (cost/kg of substance X) which describe the cost/values related to the emission per use of a kg of a certain substance. 

Brentrup, F., Kiisters, J., Lammel, J., Barraclough, P. and Kuhlmann, H. 2004. Environmental impact assessment of agricultural production systems using the life cycle assessment methodology. II. The application to N fertilizer use in winter wheat production systems. European Journal of Agronomy 20(3) 265-279. 

Life-cycle assessment methodology has been used since the 1960s with early studies that focused solely on energy usage and solid waste issues. This focus continued in life-cycle assessments performed during the oil crisis in the 1970s.86>87 The unique aspect of all of these initial studies was the early development and use of life-cycle data inventories with less emphasis on environmental risk impacts of the associated processes studied. A method published by the Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution in 1988, employing the Best Practicable Environmental... 

The pulp and paper industry is another industry where life-cycle assessment methodology has been applied. One example is a paper by Lopes et al.,130 who compared the two major fuels used in the pulp and paper industry fuel oil and natural gas. The environmental categories were the same categories listed by Allen and Shonnard.53 The use of methane in place of fuel oil decreases all of the environmental parameters except photochemical ozone formation, which does not vary between fuel options. 

Bauman, H. and A-M. Tillman, The Hitch Hiker s Guide to LCA An Orientation in Life Cycle Assessment Methodology and Applications. Studentlitteratur AB, 2004. 

LCIA - Life Cycle Impact Assessment is a phase of the life cycle assessment methodology that is aimed at understanding and evaluating the magnitude and significance of the potential environmental impacts for a product system throughout the life cycle of the product (ISO 2006). 

Baumann H, TiUman AM. The Hitch Hiker s Guide to LCA. An orientation in life cycle assessment methodology and application. Lund Studenditteratur 2004. 

Understanding of life cycle assessment and the development of improved consistency and transparency of streamlined and easy-to-use life cycle assessment methodologies. 

P.3.1 Life cycle assessment methodology has four steps that include which of the following ... 

Baumann, H., Tillman, A.M. (2005) The Hitchhiker s Guide toLCA An Orientation in Life cycle Assessment Methodology and Application. 2004. ISBN 91-44-02364-2. 

Brentmp, F., Kiisters, J., Kuhlmarm, H., I.ammel, J., 2001. Application of the life cycle assessment methodology to agricultural production an example of sugar beet production with different forms of nitrogen fertilisers. Eruopean Journal of Agronomy 14, 221-233. 

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